Geomorphology notes

Geomorphology studies how Earth’s surface changes through internal and external forces and the landforms that result. This section stays inside the planet: the layers that make up Earth (excluding…

Geomorphology links Earth’s layers to the rock that builds the crust. All crustal rock falls into three main types (igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic) classified by how the rock formed and how it…

Geomorphology explains how Earth’s surface is reshaped by internal forces. This section covers continental drift, plate tectonics, sea-floor spreading, and the four main plate margins: how plates…

Folding and faulting are how rock layers respond when tectonic forces squeeze, stretch or shear the crust. Soft, ductile rock tends to bend; brittle rock tends to fracture and slip. This section…

Earthquakes are sudden, violent shaking of Earth caused by movement along faults. When slabs of crust grind past each other (or one dives beneath another) stored energy is released as seismic waves…

Volcanoes form where magma from deep in the Earth reaches (or nearly reaches) the surface. This section covers how a volcano builds, how we classify activity, the main cone types, and how eruptions…