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Gr12 Geography Study Guide LR

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Via Afrika Geography Grade 12 Teacher’s Guide I’m so grateful that I’ve had an opportunity to Grade 12 Study Guide be involved in making someone’s life better. A.W. Hambly, P.A.D. Beets, G.D. Samaai, K. Najjaar, S.D. — Janet Thomson, Teacher Gear, U.J. Fairhurst, Z.P.L. Shabalala, J.A. Jacobs Via Afrika understands, values and supports your role as a teacher. You have the most important job in education, and we Via Afrika Geography realise that your responsibilities involve far more than just teaching. We have done our utmost to save you time and make your life easier, and we are very proud to be able to help you teach this subject successfully. Here are just some of the things we have done to assist you in this brand-new course: 1. The series was written to be aligned with CAPS. See page 4 to see how CAPS requirements are met. 2. A possible work schedule has been included. See page 5 to see how much time this could save you. 3. Each topic starts with an overview of what is taught, and the resources you need. See page 61 to find out how this will help with your planning. 4. There is advice on pace-setting to assist you in completing all the work for the year on time. Page 29 shows you how this is done. 5. Advice on how to introduce concepts and scaffold learning is given for every topic. See page 29 for an example. 6. All the answers have been given to save you time doing the exercises yourself. See page 58 for an example. 7. Also included is a CD filled with resources to assist you in your teaching and assessment. See the inside front cover. 8. A question bank with tests you may photocopy will help you assess your learners effectively. See the Question Bank on page 271. The accompanying Learner’s Book is written in accessible language and contains all the content your learners need to master. The exciting design and layout will keep their interest and make teaching a pleasure for you. We would love to hear your feedback. Why not tell us how it’s going by emailing us at geography@viaafrika.com? Alternatively, visit our teacher forum at www.viaafrika.com. Language: English ISBN 978-1-415422-72-4 www.viaafrika.com

S t ud y G ui de Geography Grade 12 ISBN: 978-1-41546-320-8

Introduction Contents General introduction... Geographical skills and techniques Unit 1 Mapwork techniques Unit 2 Topographic maps (rnc ne 12 Unit 3 Aerial photographs and orthophoto maps.. Unit 4 Geographical information systems QUESTIONS oo... eeeseeceeseeeceseeeceecesseeecseeesesseeeesseeecesaeeesseeeeeaeeeesaeeeseaeeeesseeeeseeeees Topic 1 Climate and Weather... eeccssscsssececessecessessseeseseeecesseesssseescssseesseeesesseees Unit 1 Mid-latitude cyclones .. Unit 2 Tropical cyclones .. Unit 3 Subtropical anticyclones and associated weather... Unit 4 Valley climates .. Questions ... Topic 2 Geomorphology Unit 1 Drainage systems in South Africa... Unit 2 Fluvial processes woo... cesecssscesscsssecsscesscessscssssssscesssessssssssscesssssssssesseseees Unit 3 Catchment and river management.. Questions Topic 3 Rural and urban SettleMent.v..ececccesccsccscesscsseesscssscessesssecsscesessesseseees 95 Unit 1 Study of settlements. Unit 2 Rural settlements Unit 3 Rural settlement issues.. Unit 4 Urban settlement Unit 5 Urban hierarchies... cc ccsccssccsccsccsscssscessscssscssscesssessscssssssssesenssseneseees Unit 6 Urban structure and patterns... Unit 7 Urban settlement issues QUESTIONS oo... eeeesceesssseeessseeeeeeesseeeeesseeeesseeeeesaseessaeeesaeeseesseesessaesessaeeseeaeeeeaaeees © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook

Introduction Topicg Economic geography Of SOUL APICAL ee eeesteeeeseeceeseeceeeeesseeeeeeaeeeeaee 129 Unit 1 Structure of the CCONOMY.........cccesessseeseesscsseesseesssessseesesessssessensanesenees 129 Unit 2 Agriculture.. Unit 3 Mining Unit 4 Secondary and tertiary S@Ctors ....... i seccesseeesseeeeeesesseesssseeesesseesseseeesees Unit 5 Strategies for industrial development .. Unit 6 The informal sector... Questions EXAM PapelS......cscceccesscesseessscssscscesscessscssscesscesssessscesscsssesssessseesssessseesssessoesseses Be er poncocee nnoocnnccononoc coor ococncoosor poco nooo ooo oconcooncoc ooncccoonnooonnconnnooc ceca © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook

Introduction Introduction to our Geography 12 Study Guide eBook Welcome to the Grade 12 Geography Study Guide. The subject of Geography has changed considerably over time and it continues to change because it is one of the most dynamic subjects in the curriculum. The Earth and its biosphere, the home of humankind, is changing all the time and that is what makes our subject so special. This guide must be used in conjunction with the main textbook, as it is a summary of the main components of the textbook. Geography, like any other subject, does contain facts which must be understood and learnt, but it also emphases skills. It is necessary for the learner to analyse and use these facts to understand phenomena and to try to solve problems. Our lives depend on the ways in which we treat our environment. Thus, as citizens of the Earth, we must understand the changes that are constantly taking place and our own impact on our surroundings. Geography is all around us at all times. Get into the habit of looking at a city, town, village, landscape and trying to work out the processes that act on it. Why is that shop there, why are there so many people there, why is that hill shaped liked that, how is that river being used? These are the sort of questions that you must get into the habit of asking yourself and trying to answer. Do this regularly and you will be a much better Geographer. Once you have studied the detail in the main textbook, use this guide as a summary. Concentrate on the key concepts and build your knowledge around them. Do this regularly and you will develop into a genuine geographer ready to take your place as a keeper of our vital environment. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 1

Geographical skills and techniques Geographical skills and techniques Unit 1 Mapwork techniques 1 Applying map skills and techniques 1.1 What is scale? A map represents a given area on the Earth’s surface. Maps are produced at various scales. This relationship between the map and the ground is shown in different ways. Word scale — The map distance and the ground distance it represents are written in words such as 1 cm represents 500 m. Representative fraction or ratio scale — The unit of the map distance is the numerator and the equivalent ground distance is the denominator. A representative fraction of 1:50 000 means that one unit on the map such as a centimetre represents 50 000 of the same units on the ground. Line scale — The ratio between the map distance and the equivalent ground distance is shown on a scale bar (Figure 1). 1000 0 1 2 3 metres HOEY FY EY {FF -_-———————— kilometres Figure 1 The line scale on a 1:50 000 map 1.1.1 Large and small scale maps Large scale maps show a lot of detail over a small area and small scale maps show little detail over a large area. A 1:10 000 orthophoto map has a larger scale than a 1:50 000 topographic map. A map of the world at a scale of 1:10 000 000 is a very small scale map. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 2

Geographical skills and techniques 1.2 How do you calculate distance and area? Calculating distance, area and converting to hectares Calculating distance Remember to distinguish between measuring straight line and curved-line distances. 1:50 000 (topographic maps) 1¢m represents 50 000 cm 1¢m represents 500 m acm represents 0,5 km or1mm represents 50m 1:10 000 (orthophoto maps) 1cm represents 10 000 cm 1cm represents 100 m 1cm represents 0,1 km or1mm represents 10m Estimating area of a rectangle When calculating a regular area apply the formula: length x breadth. Use ground distances when calculating area. First convert the map distances to ground distances before doing the calculation. You must be able to convert both your km? or m? area to hectares (ha). One hectare (1 ha) =100 mx 100m = 10000 m? 1km?=10 ha x 10 ha =100 ha To convert km? to hectares: To convert m? to hectares: multiply your answer by 100 divide your answer by 10 000 © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 3

Geographical skills and techniques 1.3 What is the relationship between contours and cross-sections? ¢ Acontour is a line joining places of the same height above sea level. ¢ The vertical distance between two consecutive contours is always the same. It is the contour interval. Contour patterns Slope profile Very widely spaced Very gentle slope (plain) x L-100-—~| ~—1 Widely spaced Gradual slope a ; Ry, ae L Closely spaced oteep slope EES SOS es) 3 ya v 27 F SF YP LS vl — ~< Grouped in pairs Terraced slope x , Convex slope x Concave slope Noe we be be | oe od ate call Figure 2 Contour patterns and slopes © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 4

Geographical skills and techniques Figure 3 A cross section — various slope profiles 2 How do we indicate direction? Direction is locating a feature in relation to another one. When we refer to direction we use the points of a compass rose to describe the general direction from one feature to another. Figure 4 A compass rose is used to indicate direction Bearing is a much more accurate way of indicating direction. Bearing is an angle measured clockwise from magnetic north (magnetic bearing) or true north (true bearing) (Figure 5). The starting point to determine bearing is the north-south line. North will then always be 0°. Bearing is always measured clockwise from north at 0° through a full circle to 360°. Bearings are measured using a protractor and given in degrees. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 5

Geographical skills and techniques 2.1 What is true north? True north is also known as geographical north. It is the actual point on the Earth’s surface that coincides with the north pole. 2.2 What is magnetic north? Magnetic north is the northern magnetic pole of the Earth. Presently it lies approximately north west of Canada and about 1 000 km from the true north pole. Magnetic north is the north that a compass will point to and it shifts slowly east or west of true north. true north magnetic north Figure 5 True north, magnetic north and true bearing © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 6

Geographical skills and techniques 2.3 What is magnetic declination and how is it calculated? Skills file How to calculate magnetic declination A h >>" 4 Mean magnetic declination 23° 22' west of true north (uly 2002) 4 \ = 2 Mean annual change 12' westwards (2000-2005) ch \ = (Supplied by Hermanus Magnetic Observatory) a\ |s ale ¥ 1 Determine the difference in years. 1 2010 - 2002 =7 years Current year minus first date in brackets. 2 Annual change 12' west 2 Multiply these years with the mean 7 * 12’ =84' annual change. 84'=1° 24' 3 Add or subtract this total annual change from the magnetic 3 Annual change is west declination. ADD to magnetic declination If the average change is westwards — =r 23° 22' + 1° 24'= 24° 46’ ADD! If the average change is eastwards — SUBTRACT! © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 7

Geographical skills and techniques 3 What is grid referencing? The absolute position of any place can be located by determining the latitude and longitude of the place. This consists of latitude north or south of the equator. e All latitudes in South Africa are south of the equator. e All longitudes in South Africa are east of Greenwich, or the Prime Meridian. How to determine location accurately 1 Draw a very light pencil line in the minute frame (that surrounds the map on the outside) opposite the 34°15) relevant feature. Do this for both the latitude (left or right) and the longitude (top or bottom). 2 Start by counting the latitude minutes from the top of the map to the minute section directly opposite ( a) the geographic object in question marked with the pencil ee line. This will be 16" 3 Subdivide the minute section as follows: % a Divide it halfway — this will be the 30" “U1 value. b Divide each half (30") into two Fe) b —F 35" o Cn ) (quarters). These will be the 15" and 45" values Reacts 20, pad respectively. a 30" C Divide the relevant quarter (where the b 45" pencil line has been drawn) now into three equal parts that will each represent 5". 4 The correct number of seconds can now be easily and accurately determined as 18". The latitude rT value will than be 34° 16'18" S. 5 To determine the longitude value, repeat these steps by counting the minutes from left to right. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 8

Geographical skills and techniques 4 Map and photo interpretation Questions on map interpretation can be set from anywhere in the Grade 12 syllabus. You should use the topographic maps, aerial photographs and orthophoto maps in Via Afrika Geography Grade 12 to work through Table 1, finding as many examples as possible. Table 1 How to systematically read and analyse a map or aerial photograph Climate and weather Position latitude (climate of place) and longitude; proximity of mountains and oceans; distance from the sea (maritime or continental) Rainfall year round: perennial rivers; seasonal (summer or winter): farm dams, irrigation, non-perennial rivers, agronomy; dry to arid: wind pumps, large farms, stock farming; sufficient rain: forests 0750 mm) Temperature latitude position determines how cold/cool/hot a place is; height above sea- level (cold or warm) and slope front (shadows or sunlight); temperature inversions at night Wind rows of trees or windbreaks; landing strips and aerodrames; valley winds: catabatic (night) and anabatic (day) Relief and topography Regions mountains and plains, high and lowlands, highest and lowest points Terrain forms size, average height above sea-level, extent (direction) Slope steepness, convex, concave, straight, uniform, slope type (crest, cliff, talus slope, knickpoint, pediment) Type of landform valley, spur, gorge (ravine), cliff, waterfall, terrace, saddle (neck), pass Landscape mountainous, undulating, hills, plains, floodplains Landforms associated with structural landscapes Horizontal strata plateaux, table mountains (mesas), buttes, conical hills Inclined strata cuestas, hamoclinal ridges, hogsbacks, dip slopes and scarp slopes Massive igneous rock dome shaped landforms (batholiths, laccoliths, lopoliths), tors, dykes Fluvial process Drainage basins watersheds, trunk (main) and tributary rivers Stream pattern dendritic, trellis, radial, rectangular, centripetal, deranged Stream orders lengths, number, gradient, basin area Stage and shape length-profile (upper, middle lower course) cross-profile (V-shaped, broad/wide) Features waterfalls, rapids, braided streams, undercut river bank, slip-off river bank, © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 9

Geographical skills and techniques meanders, flood plains Stream direction always to the sea; from high to low areas; contours bend upstream; dam wall on the downstream side; tributaries join trunk with an acute angle Stream piracy watershed, capturing river, misfit stream, elbow of capture, wind gap Features of the fluvial cycle stages Upper course high watershed:., V-shaped valleys, steep gradient, short, small and many tributaries, waterfalls and rapids, fast flow, erosion vertical Middle course gentle slopes, watershed on lower levels, open valleys, longer and less tributaries, gentle river bends, erosion and transport start to be sideways Lower course broad valleys, gentle gradients, flood plains, meanders and oxbow lakes, deposition, slow flow, braided streams Settlements Site physical nature of the exact piece of land on which a settlement is located Situation relationship of a settlement with its immediate and wider environment (geographic placement with reference to relief, drainage, transport routes, and utilisation of soil) Function unifunctional (rural with primary activities); multifunctional (urban with secondary, tertiary and quaternary functions) Rural settlement Patterns dispersed/isolated (buildings far from each other), farmsteads; nucleated/clustered (buildings close to each other), farm villages Factors determining site drinking water, plough land, grazing land, building material, fuel Factors determining shape linear (road, river, mountains, sea); circular (central point — town square, market, church); crossroad (junction/intersection of roads) Urban settlements Factors determining site water supply, nature of soil, relief (flat surface), roads, rivers, railway lines, sea, defensibility, function Type central place, commerce, transport, specialised Morphological structure shape (circular, linear, star shaped); street plan (grid, radial, irregular); physical expansion (commercial ribbon development, multiple cores, exclusive residential and work areas, residential differentiation) Land use zones central business district, retail area, residential, light and heavy industries, rural-urban fringe Economic activities Primary activities commercial — good infrastructure, irrigation, large farms, winery, saw mill, sugar mill, abattoir, mines, fishing harbours, and so on; subsistence —few roads, no power lines, footpaths, small areas of cultivated fields © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 10

Geographical skills and techniques Secondary activities light industries — close to CBD, road transport, raw materials agriculture; heavy industries — far fram CBD, rail transport, raw materials, mainly mining; factors influencing site — level area, raw materials, transport, electricity, water, market Tertiary activities provision of services such as education (schools, colleges, universities), tourism, holiday resorts, commerce, medical and health care, airports, electricity supply Also take note of the following Tourist attractions, holiday resorts and monuments Recreation facilities such as sport stadiums, golf courses, racetracks, shooting ranges Airports and aerodromes are determined by flat surfaces, far from build-up areas (safety and noise) Uses of large dams: drinking water; water purification plants; irrigation: canals and furrows, cultivated fields and orchards; recreation: camping sites, sail and ski (slipways), and angling Infrastructure: type and number of roads, railway lines, power lines, harbours as well as how infrastructure relates to the topography and drainage © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 11

Geographical skills and techniques Unit 2 Topographic maps 1 What are the conventional map signs and symbols? Every 1:50 000 topographic map has a key or reference at the bottom of the map (Figure 6). The reference explains the symbols used on the map and helps you to understand the map information. National Freeway; National Route Arterial Route Main Road Secondary Road; Bench Mark Other Road; Bridge Track and Hiking Trail Railway; Station or Siding Other Railway; Tunnel Embankment; Cutting Power Line Built-up Area (High, Low Density) Buildings; Ruin Y Post Office; Police Station; Store Place of Worship; School; Hotel Fence; Wall Windpump; Monument Communication Tower Mine Dump; Excavation Trigonometrical Station; Marine Beacon Lighthouse and Marine Light Cemetery; Grave plantation waterfall weir railway cable car cemetery river vineyard excavation ruin trig beacon lighthouse windpump harbour International Boundary and Beacon Provincial Boundary Protected Area Perennial River .. Perennial Water Non-perennial River Non-perennial Water Dry Water Course Dry Pan Marsh and Vlei Pipeline (above ground) Water Tower; Reservoir; Water Point Coastal Rocks - Prominent Rock Outerop Erosion; Sand Woodland Cultivated Land Orchard or Vineyard Recreation Ground Row of Trees Original Farms bridge ‘communication are place of worship Figure 6 1:50 000 topographic map symbols and images of what some of them represent © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 12

Geographical skills and techniques 2 What are contours and landforms? Maps are two dimensional representations on a flat sheet of paper but height can be shown by spot heights, bench marks, trigonometrical beacons and contours. 2.1 How are landforms recognised on a topographic map? Contour patterns Landforms Contour patterns Landforms Concentric circles Conical hill V-shaped contours overlap Waterfall (long profile) x ee ae 9 se Fe She me x YY ly Closed lines arround wide centre Table mountain (mesa) V-shaped contours point uphill _ Valley (cross profile) _) ep tote | Y tte oat oe CEE ee x , . Contour lines overlap Vertical slope (cliff) V-shaped contours point downhill Spur (cross profile) Xe eS as Y hia ae Ae y 1 Figure 7 Contours and their landforms 3 How do you construct cross-sections from 1:50 000 maps? Cross-sections are constructed in four steps, illustrated in Figure 8 on the next page. Prepare the profile framework. Gather the data. Transfer the data. Complete the profile. WN © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 13

Geographical skills and techniques £Fort Ss Step 1. ‘got : —120 penny ae ork Cross-section across Montagu rotile framewor! 00+) 400 Base line represents 4. s g exact map distance. 300 ia © maa Mark vertical lines %o-+ 3 S| tr with scale ranging £ < between one division cae a wba TReeTTTT Retad beyond the lowest eH 3 2 ORB 2k 2 33 and highest points. ao} Ai wt a3 8 3 — 280 8 =—- —— £2 260 Step 2. e Gather the data 52) a ae On the edge of astrip | & EE See SS = of paper mark ofthe | 2 a Cj position and height of 200 eanesital stale e008 200 each contour line. +418 Vertical exaggeration = 12,5 times 370,6 m Figure 8 Four steps to construct a cross-section across 3320CC Montagu 4 What is vertical exaggeration? >, Diggings"*S Step 3. Transfer the data Hold the strip of paper between the vertical lines. At each height transfer the points where the contours cross onto the profile. Step 4. Complete the profile Join the points to represent the natural rise and fall of the landscape and shade the profile. Add title, end heights, feature labels, vertical and horizontal scales and vertical exaggeration. Vertical exaggeration is the deliberate vertical expansion of the cross-section’s vertical scale in order to see height variations more clearly (Figure 9). Vertical exaggeration is calculated by dividing the vertical scale by the horizontal scale, where both scales are expressed as representative fractions. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 14

Geographical skills and techniques iver 460m 420m g ey = 600 : s E500 500 > = 400 400 x Profile (a) ¥ Vertical exaggeration 2,5 times hX / | | rae H Z ! P ‘ee tS< H \ F3 4 al ie r jo. f “i 1 - “f ye ef 2 fa ~ £ x Profile (b) Y Extract from 3226DD ALICE Vertical exaggeration 5 times Figure 9 Cross section X-Y shown at different vertical exaggerations 4.1 Calculating vertical exaggeration vertical scale 1 1 _ 50000 horizontal scale ~ 2000 ~ 50000 ~ 2000 ~-> mes 5 What is intervisibility? Intervisibility is when you can see one point from another and it can be determined by examining the contours. ¢ Two points of the same height are intervisible if there is no higher terrain between them. e Where contours show a convex slope, the summit of the hill is not visible from the foot of the hill. ¢ Where contours show a concave slope the summit and foot of the hill are intervisible. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 15

Geographical skills and techniques 6 What is gradient? Gradient is the relationship between height and distance. It is written as a ratio. The gradient tells us how steep a straight line is. We calculate gradient to find out how steep or gentle a slope is. An easy way to remember the ratio for gradient is RISE:RUN. Learn this formula and write it down when doing gradient calculations. You might be given a mark even if you get the calculation completely wrong. Calculating gradient (Calculate the gradient between the top of a slope (490 m) and the foot of the slope (430 m). Horizontal distance between spot heights is 2,1 cm measured on 1:50 000 map. Vertical distance (RISE) I: Horizontal distance (RUN) Height at top of slope 490m 2,1cm IMap distance between top and bottom of| slope Height at bottom of slope 430m 2,1¢m x 50 000 |(always convert to same unit of 100 measurement) RISE 60m I: 1050m IRUN Reduce height to 1, divide both 60 I 1050 sides by the height value 60 60 Gradient of slope = 1 I 1755 Gradient expressed as a fraction 1 1755 © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 16

Geographical skills and techniques Unit 3 Aerial photographs and orthophoto maps Orthophotos are aerial photographs with the distortions caused by camera angle removed so they are true to scale. An orthophoto map has added details such as contour lines, place names, spot heights and trigonometrical stations added. They are drawn to a scale of 1:10 000. Unit 4 Geographical information systems GIS is a computerised system consisting of hardware, software and methods designed to capture, manage, manipulate, analyse, model and display spatial and non-spatial data to solve planning and management problems. Table 2 Key terms in GIS Concept Term Spatial data This is all data that are shown with symbols on a map. The spatial data for a school could be its exact latitude and longitude. Attribute or non-spatial data This is that information which describes the spatial characteristics of the spatial features. The attribute data for a school could that it is a high school for 345 boys and 360 girls. Vector data This is data of geographic features shown in point (a node such as a school), line (an are such as a river) and area (a polygon such as a dam) format. Raster data This is data of geographic features shown with grid cells. Spatial resolution This determines how clear and easy the detail is to see. Buffering This is the creation of a zone of equal width around a point, line or area feature in GIS. An example of buffering is where it is not allowed to plant any trees in a plantation closer than 50 metres from any river. Remote sensing This is the gathering of information about the Earth from weather balloons, aeroplanes and satellites. Data or thematic layering This is when different types of information are placed one on top of the other in layers to see the overall picture. Such layers on a topographic map could be: vegetation, contour lines, roads, rivers or built up areas. Work through the activities on GIS in the Learner’s Book on pages 51, 247 and 253 to revise this topic. There will always be questions on GIS in Exam Paper 2 and they could also appear in Exam Paper 1. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 17

Geographical skills and techniques Questions Work through the map interpretation questions of the June and End-of-year exam papers. These exams are similar to those one will get in Grade 12. Also answer the multiple choice questions below, which are good revision work. Question1 | Show the letter corresponding to the best answer to the questions below. 11 Which of the following scales is the best representative of a small-scale map? A 1cmto1ikm B 1:1,000,000 Cc 1:50 000 D 1:10 000 E icm to20m 1.2 A large-scale map shows... A a large amount of detail for a large amount of area B a large amount of detail for a smal] amount of area Cc asmall amount of detail for alarge amount of area D a small amount of detail for a small amount of area 1.3. Which of the following representative fractions would show the most detail on a map? A 1:1 000 000 B 1:10 000 Cc 1:50 000 D 1:10 000 000 1.4 The ratio between the measurement of something on the map and the corresponding measurement on the earth is known as... A distance direction Cc projection D scale E GIS © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 18

1.5 1.6 ry / 1.8 Geographical skills and techniques How are latitude and longitude lines drawn on a globe of Earth? A latitude lines are parallel and longitude lines meet at the poles B latitude lines are parallel and longitude lines meet at the equator Cc longitude lines are parallel and latitude lines meet at the poles D longitude lines are parallel and latitude lines meet at the equator An airplane takes off from a location at 17° S latitude and flies to a new location 55° due north of its starting point. What latitude has the plane reached? A 28°N B 38°N Cc W225 D 72°N 38°S Which of the following are correct latitude and longitude coordinates? A 110° N, 78° E B 110° N, 78° N Cc 5° N, 120° W D 100° S, 123° N Figure 1 shows various compass readings. N represents true north. N A X 70° ° 110° y 20 0 90 70° w Z Figure 1 © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 19

1.8.1 1.8.2 1.8.3 1.8.4 1.8.5 1.9 Geographical skills and techniques In Figure 1 the true bearing of X from O is... A 110° B 290° Cc 90° D 700° In Figure 1 the true bearing of Y from O is... A 270° B 160° Cc 90° D 7o° In Figure 1 the true bearing of O from X is ... A 110° B 250° Cc 90° D 70° In Figure 1 the true bearing of O from Zis ... A 0° B 180° Cc 90° D 270° In Figure 1 the true bearing of O from Wis... A 110° B 250° Cc 290° D 270° Figure 2 shows a cross section line which has been drawn through a series of contour lines (interval 100 m). Three places, X, Y and Z are marked on the line. O]o| ojo joo Ke} fe) Of in| Sen 200 ° S Y = | 005 009 itt | Figure 2 © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook —_ | 00€

1.9.1 1.9.2 1.9.3 1.10 Geographical skills and techniques In Figure 2 which of the following statements is true? A Y is equally distant from X and Z Y is just visible from Z X is not visible from Y Y is visible from X “oO ow Zis visible from Y In Figure 2 the slope from X to Yis... A stepped B uniform Cc concave D convex In Figure 2 the slope from Z to Y is ... A stepped B uniform Cc concave D convex Figure 3 shows a contour map with four spot heights, W at 218 m, X at 140 m, Y at 183 m and Z at 235m. S Figure 3 1.10.1 In Figure 3 which of the following lines of sight does NOT have intervisibility? A WX B YW Cc ZX D ZW E XY © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 21

Geographical skills and techniques 1.10.2 The contour interval represents the ... A B Cc D E accuracy of the surveying work horizontal spacing between the contour lines number of contour lines on a map vertical spacing between contour lines none of these 1.10.3 Contour lines on a topographic map that are close together indicate that ... A B Cc D the land slopes gradually the land is very steep the elevation is very high the elevation is very low 1.10.4 Contour lines on a topographic map that are spread far apart indicate that ... A B Cc D the land slopes gradually the land is very steep the elevation is high the elevation is low 1.10.5 Contour lines ... A B Cc D can never cross can cross in very steep areas can cross on very precise maps can cross where there are cliffs 20x2=(40) TOTAL MARKS [40] © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 22

Geographical skills and techniques Answers to Questions 11 B (2) 1.2 B (2) 13. «=B (2) 1.4 D (2) 1.5 A (2) 16 B (2) bly/ Cc (2) 18.1 B (2) 1.8.2 A (2) 1.8.3 A (2) 1.8.4 A (2) 1.8.5 C€ (2) 1.9.1 D (2) 1.9.2 C€ (2) 1.9.3 D (2) 1.10.1 C (2) 1.10.2 D (2) 1.10.3 B (2) 1.10.4 A (2) 1.10.5 A (2) 20x2=(40) TOTAL MARKS [40] © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 23

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather Topic 1 Climate and weather Unit 1 Mid-latitude cyclones 1 General characteristics Mid-latitude cyclones are also known as frontal depressions, depressions and extra- tropical cyclones. They are low pressure systems (lows) associated with the meeting of warm and cold air masses. As the two air masses have different densities, they do not mix readily but will be ‘separated’ by a front. In the Southern Hemisphere winds rotate clockwise into the centre of the low. In the Northern Hemisphere winds rotate anti-clockwise into a low. The diameter of mid-latitude cyclones ranges from 1 000 to 4 000 km. They occur all year round, but in South Africa their influence is strongest in winter, bringing the familiar cold fronts often accompanied by rain. In summer they move further south of the country. These travelling cyclones range in strength from a mild disturbance to a powerful storm. 1.1 Definitions Cyclone: A cyclone is an area of low pressure usually associated with wet and windy weather. Front: A front is a boundary separating two air masses with different temperature and moisture characteristics. Warm front: A warm front is found where warm air replaces cold air. Cold front: A cold front is found where cold air replaces warm air. 2 Where do mid-latitude cyclones form? These weather systems occur between approximately 30° and 60° north and south of the Equator. In both hemispheres they move from west to east within the westerly wind belts (Figure 10). © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 24

TOPIC1 Climate and weather Tropics — latitudes: Tropics Figure 10 Mid-latitude climate zones (and other major latitudinal zones) Sometimes a series of fronts will develop, in which three or four fronts follow one after the other in a ‘family’ of fronts. In the Southern Hemisphere the oldest frontal system (which arrives first) will be furthest towards the south-east. Each younger member is slightly further north and west than its predecessor (Figure 11). Figure 12 A family of fronts © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 25

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather 3 What are the conditions necessary for the formation of mid-latitude cyclones? A mid-latitude cyclone is a large spiral of air that forms and breaks up, along the polar front. The conditions favourable to the formation of a mid-latitude cyclone are: ¢ Two large high pressure systems (anti-cyclones) are in contact on the polar front. ¢ The warm, subtropical high pressure contains a warm, moist maritime air mass. ¢ The polar high pressure contains a cold, dry air mass. ¢ The air flow converges from opposite directions on the two sides of the polar front. ¢ Disturbances on the polar front cause a local low pressure into which air will flow and around. 4 What are the stages of development and related weather conditions of mid-latitude cyclones? The diagrams below show the four stages in the development of a mid-latitude cyclone. 4.1 The initial stage ¢ Warm, moist subtropical air meets cold, drier air along a stationary polar front. ¢ There is no movement across the polar front (Figure 12). e The air masses do not mix, but move parallel to each other in opposite directions on both sides of the front. 1008 hPa rs a polar front boundary zone between the two air masses a - 1006 hPa COLD AIR .———— 1008 hPa Figure 12 The initial stage © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 26

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather 4.2 Development or wave stage e A disturbance occurs on the polar front and it now has a wave-like appearance (Figure 13). cold front warm winds blow polar front bends due to disturbance \ 4 warm Lt 4 ne ‘ \ front \ No Se cold winds. \ - ; \ \ cold winds blowonto ~~ blow onto cold front t cold front Figure 13 The development or wave stage 4.3 Mature stage ¢ Cold air moves in a northerly direction, west of the low pressure centre. A cold front develops. e Warm air is pushed in a southerly direction, east of the low pressure centre. A warm front develops. ¢ Winds blow clockwise around and into the low pressure, in the Southern Hemisphere (Figure 14). y i: warm sector % ema % a f 7004 hp, fom” 1002 hp. oe / C cold air low Figure14 The mature stage 4.4 Occluded stage ¢ Cold air wedges in under the warm air, lifts it up and isolates the warm air from the Earth’s surface. This process is called occlusion. The front that is formed is called an occluded front (Figure 15). e Figure 16 shows what happens three-dimensionally as the system develops to the occlusion stage. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 27

TOPIC1 Climate and weather warm sector 4004 i _—_—> cold air warm air 4002 4.000 cold | air low / occluded front Figure 15 The occlusion stage cumulonimbus clouds stratiform clouds, often nimbostratus stratus clouds ahead of the cold front Figure 16 A three-dimensional representation of the occlusion process 4.5 Dissipating stage In the dissipating stage, cold air completely isolates warm air from the ground as all the warm air has been lifted high above the ground (Figure 17). (Ga P surrounded by cold air nr Figure 17 The dissipating stage © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 28

TOPIC1 Climate and weather 5 What is the weather associated with mid-latitude cyclones? Questions on the weather associated with mid-latitude cyclones and the reasons are often set in exams and you should make sure you know and understand Tables 3 and 4. Table 3 The weather associated with mid-latitude cyclones DEPRESSION MOVES IN THIS DIRECTION COLD AIR cold heavier % polar air sinks — undercuts warm air \ cumulonimbus cumulus: COLD AIR ground level fewer and lighter heavy and short period fair or lengthy period cloud getslower —_ high, thin cloud showers frequent of heavy rain - drizzle of steady rain and thicker develops showers possible hail and thunder Figure 18 The weather associated with a passing mid-latitude cyclone As the cold front approaches Warm sector As the warm front approaches ¢ The temperature falls. e The temperature is at its ¢ The temperature is low but ¢ = The warm air rises and highest. rises slowly. cumulonimbus clouds start e The pressure is at its lowest. | ¢ Rain falls. to form. e = The wind is northerly or e = The wind is north easterly. e The pressure starts to drop. north westerly. e Warm front conditions are e Rain falls. seldom experienced over e = There is a drop in humidity. South Africa as they are e ~The wind backs and becomes usually too far south. south westerly. Table 4 Reasons for weather changes at the cold front Changes Reasons Temperature falls. The cold air behind the cold front has arrived. Wind backs. Air blows in a clockwise direction around a Southern Hemisphere low pressure system. Cloud cover increases. The warm rises over the cold air, is cooled and condenses. Pressure drops. Pressure is at its lowest just ahead of the cold front. Rain falls. If the rising air is sufficiently moist and unstable heavy rain falls. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 29

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather Unit 2 Tropical cyclones 1 What are the general characteristics of tropical cyclones? Tropical cyclones cause considerable loss of life and damage to property, vegetation and economic activities, mostly along the east coasts of continents. Tropical cyclones are intense low pressure systems. They originate in late summer or autumn over warm tropical oceans (at least 26 °C), except in the southern Atlantic Ocean. They need Coriolis force to form, which is zero within 5° of the Equator, so they develop within latitudes 5° and 20° N and S. They move westwards at a rate of 40-200 km a day. Near 20-30° N and §, they tend to curve back eastwards at a rate of 500-700 km/ day. As low pressure areas, their rotation is clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere and anti-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. The source of energy in tropical cyclones is the large amount of latent heat released as rising warm, moist tropical air condenses. They are accompanied by heavy rain, storm surges and high winds. 2 Where do tropical cyclones form? Tropic of Cancer---S2> (Hurricanes Equator : on T Niaie lovember = = Z iN ~ ) J @®Tropical cyc ejben Tropic of Capricorn g. December—Mai cyclones| June-October luaty-March ein” u Sf ® Mean number of tropical | january-March cyclones per year occurrence cycl Time of Tropical Local name Sea temperatu re Figure 19 Tropical cyclones: global location and mean frequency © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 30

TOPIC1 Climate and weather 3 What are the factors necessary for tropical cyclones to form? Exam questions are often set on the requirements and reasons for the formation of tropical cyclones and you should make sure you know and understand Table s. Table 5 Requirements and reasons for the formation of a tropical cyclone Requirements Reasons Ocean temperatures over 27°C ¢ Heat is needed for convection. e = Friction is at a minimum over the ocean. e = The air is heavily charged with water vapour in a tropical maritime atmosphere. Unstable air Atmospheric instability makes convection possible. Very low pressure and steep pressure gradient e Rapid convergence helps the air to rise. ¢ The steep pressure gradient helps Coriolis Force to develop and causes the rotation. An undisturbed period of several days Time is needed for the slow convergence of warm moist air towards the low pressure centre. Some upper-air triggering action A strong horizontal divergence of air at upper levels stimulates the circulation and formation of a vortex. Winds must be light and variable before the formative period. Strong winds or winds from a constant direction: e will prevent the development of a vortex e = disturb the low level distribution of water vapour e reduce the surface temperature of the water. 4 What are the stages of development of tropical cyclones? The life cycle of a tropical cyclone, which may last a number of days, can be divided in four stages (Table 6). Nevertheless, unfavourable conditions may stop the development at any stage. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 31

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather Table 6 The stages in the development of a tropical cyclone in the Southern Hemisphere Formative stage e The pressure is still above 1 000 hPa but dropping quickly. e Winds are already at gale force in the front left-hand quadrant. Developing stage ¢ Pressure is now below 1 000 hPa and continuing to fall. e Winds are now hurricane strength in the front left-hand quadrant near the eye, with gales further away Mature stage e Pressure is now very low, as low as 900-940 hPa in the eye but has stopped falling. ¢ Weather and winds (hurricane strength) are at their worst especially in the worst weather quadrant. Degenerating or dissipating stage e =Pressure begins to rise. e Winds drop in strength. e = There is still heavy rain. © The system is by probably over land or over cooler water and does receive latent heat. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 32

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather 5 What are the associated weather patterns? Table 7 Weather conditions at the passage of a tropical cyclone As the cyclone approaches As the eye is overhead As the cyclone moves away e Temperature rises e Calm though there is a sea swell which begins to increase e = High cirrus clouds on the horizon e Pressure begins to fall ¢ Wind strength increases e Temperatures increase slightly ¢ Wind drops suddenly ¢ Pressure is at its lowest e = Light scattered cloud ¢ Sunshine ¢ Calm conditions for an hour or two ¢ First set of conditions repeated ¢ Winds have reversed their direction e Conditions gradually improve until the cyclone has passed ¢ Cumulonimbus clouds approach ¢ = Torrential rain e Storm surge swamps low lying areas e Temperatures drop. 6 Across-section through a mature tropical cyclone tony Ss ioe = Toe = eye atmosphere Ox \ a iM \ \ ee \ \ \ / ma / { (a / cA spiral band of | thunderstorms. \ : \ee near surface ocean convergence of moist warm air Figure 20 A cross-section through a tropical cyclone © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 33

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather 7 How do you recognise tropical cyclones on synoptic maps? Characteristics of a tropical cyclone on synoptic maps are: ¢ alow pressure cell with closed isobars between 5° and 30° N and S of the Equator (Figure 21) ¢ symbol for tropical cyclone in the eye (centre of low pressure) e name of the tropical cyclone written next to system ¢ the date of the map in late summer or early autumn. _|_ Bulawayo@e—IS a pA 2 | 1016. Figure 21 Synoptic weather map of 25 January 2012 © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 34

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather 8 What are the impacts of tropical cyclones on human activities and the environment? Tropical cyclones are the most destructive natural hazards in terms of frequency and number of deaths. Not only people, but also the natural and constructed environments are affected. The main causes of the destruction are heavy rain, strong winds and, in coastal areas, the storm surge. The storm surge often causes the most damage. In more developed regions, such as the USA, the damage is mainly monetary while in the less developed areas, such as Mozambique, there is more loss of life and less monetary damage. 9 What are the strategies to help prepare for and manage the effects of tropical cyclones? Warnings about impending tropical cyclones are normally given by the local weather office. You should listen regularly to the radio and/or watch TV and pay attention to advice and instructions. 10 The differences between tropical cyclones and mid- latitude cyclones Table 8 The difference between tropical cyclones and mid-latitude cyclones Tropical cyclones Mid-latitude cyclones Names Typhoons (China, Japan) Extra-tropical cyclones, mid-latitude Hurricanes (America) cyclones, depressions Origin Tropical oceans 5-30° N and S At polar front 40-60° N and S Pressure Very low Low Pressure gradient Very steep Less steep Movement East to west carried by tropical West to east carried by the easterlies westerlies Wind speed Very fast Not as fast Size 250-500km diameter 1000-3500 km diameter Weather Hot, destructive winds, heavy rain | Cool, cloudy and rainy © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 35

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather Unit 3 Subtropical anticyclones and associated weather 1 South Africa's climate and weather are determined by three controlling factors ¢ The influence of the surrounding ocean. The oceans moderate the temperatures of coastal areas. The warm Agulhas current promotes rainfall on the east while the cold Benguela current makes for a dry west coast. ¢ The plateau of the interior (altitude). Most of the interior of South Africa lies at an altitude of 1 500 metres above sea level. This lowers the temperature of the interior. ¢ The subtropical anticyclones. This means that South Africa generally has a dry climate with high temperatures. 4, Oceans surrounding the 2, The plateau 3. The subtropical anticyclones sub-continent Its high altitude lowers temperatures. With South Africa is situated in the subtropical They have a moderating influence on the the steep escarpment ‘along the coast” high pressure zone where air sinks and weather and climate. The cold Benguela preventing moist air coming into the interior, _results in higher temperatures and dry, current brings cooler, dry air into the west _—_drier conditions are caused inthe interior. _ cloudless weather. coast. Along the east and south coast, the warmer Mozambique and Agulhas currents bring warm, moist air over the adjacent coastal regions. ~~~ Cold current High pressure H “—& Warm current Central plateau jum The South Atlantic high-pressure system is usually situated far off the Namibian coast. As air ‘The warm air lying over cold air ‘The position of the South Indian high- above the cold ocean causes a pressure system over the sea east of Durban fluctuates more than that of the South Atlantic high. Ittends to move away from the coast during summer, but moves nearer again in winter. The anti-cyclonic circulation causes north-westerly winds blowing over the eastern parts of South Africa. As these winds blow over the warm ‘ocean, it brings warm, moist and unstable air which may cause rain when reaching the cooler land area. 1 y 1 descends, itwarms adiabatically. | == ~ 1 { ‘ ‘ t ‘ |. permanent inversion and stable 4 ' air. South-westerly winds, caused |! The Kalahari high-pressure system over the central plateau is ( not as well developed as the Atlantic and Indian cells. Apart f from a slight weakening and southward displacement during { summer, this cell remains fairly stable throughout the year, ‘ and its influence on circulation therefore remains constant. f This pressure system is a towering three-dimensional system f leaning slightly to the west. While its base is usually above the { plateau in the east, at a height of 6 000 m above sea level, itis q situated above Namibi by anticyclonic circulation blowing: towards the land, are common. These winds that blow towards the north-east, tend to retain their moisture as they move from a colder to warmer latitude, This causes dry conditions along the west coast of South Africa, Figure 22 Main factors controlling South Africa’s climate © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 36

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather 2 What are the characteristics of the high pressure cells? The high-pressure cells are weather systems characterised by: e descending air (Figure 23) ¢ air that comes from the drier upper atmosphere e descending air warming at around 1 °C / 100 m e clear, sunny and dry weather conditions ¢ moving northwards in winter and southwards in summer. 1026 hPa convergence winds bent by Coriolis force meee > divergence general movement of air Figure 23 Air movements round a Southern Hemisphere anticyclone 3 How does the anticyclonic air circulation around South Africa influence the weather and climate? Winter: Subsiding air in the Kalahari cell heats lower layers causing a dry interior. Because of the cold plateau with no rising air, an inversion layer is formed. This is often lower than the escarpment and prevents moist air moving in from the Indian Ocean. Summer: The sinking air of the Kalahari high pressure cell is weaker. The plateau is hot and air rises, causing thermal lows. The inversion layer is now higher, above the escarpment. Warm, moist air can flow in from the ocean, causing extensive rainfall in the eastern part of the country. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 37

TOPIC1 Climate and weather dry sinking air version layer: temperature * increases with height rising warm moist air from the sea WINTER Seasonal impact of the ee Kalahari HP cell and inversions air from the sea we rising warm moist SUMMER Pe ae Kalahari HP cell weakens over interior Figure 24 Seasonal impact of the Kalahari high-pressure cell and inversions 4 What are the travelling disturbances associated with anticyclonic air circulation in South Africa? 4.1 Line thunderstorms and moisture fronts Most thunderstorms over the interior are associated with a moisture front extending from the north-west to the south-east. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 38

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather 4.1.1 How the moisture front develops Moist, warm, unstable air from the South Indian high comes in from the north-east. Drier, cooler, more stable air comes in from the South Atlantic high from the south- west. The contact zone between these different air masses is known as the moisture front. The dry, cooler air from the south-west is denser and heavier and it ridges in under the north-east air mass, forcing it to rise and causing cooling and cloud formation in the moist, north-east air mass. Thunderstorms develop in a wide strip north-east of the moisture front or trough axis (Figure 25). Line thunderstorms only develop in summer because of the lifting of the inversion layer in summer. NE | warm, moist air. * es H \ \ Seca” 7 / \ \ NON ! \, Cid “ Ms \ mae System moving in this direction Figure 25 Line thunderstorms develop along the eastern side of the moisture front 4.2 The coastal low A coastal low-pressure system is a weak low pressure cell, about 100 km wide, in the lower layers of the atmosphere (Figure 25). Coastal lows occur when the wind blows from the land to the sea. This results in warm, often strong, offshore berg winds in front of the low and cool onshore flow behind it. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 39

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather The clockwise circulation causes an off-shore air flow on the leading side. As this air is heated adiabatically it reaches the coast as a dry, warm (berg) wind. On the non-leading side of the coastal low the air is on-shore and brings cool, cloudy weather. 4.3 Berg winds Berg winds are warm, dry offshore winds, descending from the high-lying areas and blowing towards the sea. Berg winds occur mainly in winter, but they can also cause very dry and hot days during other seasons. Berg winds can he recognised on synoptic charts by: ¢ temperatures much higher than the normal for winter especially along the coast ¢ low humidity — a large depression to the dew point e winds blow from the interior to the sea. Coastal LP moves south and east along coast and berg winds shift ahead of it. Betg wind Cape Town ey Na Port Elizabeth erg wind Figure 26 A coastal low and berg wind © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 40

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather 5 Synoptic weather maps linked to subtropical anticyclonic conditions 5.1 Summer conditions ¢ The westerly wind belt and its depressions move south of the continent (Figure 27). ¢ Temperatures generally are high. ¢ The South Indian high is situated eastwards and anticlockwise circulation transports moisture on its way to the continent. ¢ Uplift along the escarpment can cause clouds and precipitation. ¢ The South Atlantic high is closer to the west coast and brings in dry air. ¢ A moisture front forms where the different air masses from the Indian and Atlantic Oceans meet (west of the low pressure trough). ¢ Thunderstorms develop along the moisture front. ¢ Note the position of tropical cyclone Dando on Figure 27. my, a7 5 10 15 Figure 27 A synoptic map showing summer conditions © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 41

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather 5.2 Winter conditions The synoptic weather map in Figure 28 illustrates weather patterns typical of winter conditions. e The pressure systems shift northwards. ¢ The cold fronts are closer to the continent. ¢ Temperatures are generally lower than summer conditions e The Kalahari anticyclone is over the interior. This results in dry conditions with little cloud cover. Walvis oy SEY Figure 28 A synoptic map showing winter conditions © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 42

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather 6 Reading and interpreting synoptic maps Isobars close together show a steep pressure gradient and strong winds. When isobars are far apart there is a gentle pressure gradient with weak winds. In the Southern Hemisphere air circulates clockwise round low pressure and anti- clockwise round high pressure. Low pressure cells show that air is converging and rising and there is a possibility of rain. High pressure cells show diverging subsiding air and the skies will be clear. Onshore winds bring moist air onto the land. Offshore winds are dry. The sub-tropical high pressure helt is split into three: the South Atlantic high, the Continental or Kalahari high and the South Indian high. These pressure cells are further south in summer and further north in winter. The Kalahari high is usually only seen in winter. A trough of low pressure can usually be found over the land in summer. It extends from the north-west (Namibia) to the south east (Eastern Cape). Mid-latitude cyclones usually blow over the land in winter but are usually further south in summer and miss the land. Sometimes there is a coastal low pressure cell on the coast. It usually moves around the coast from west to east. Tropical cyclones are sometimes seen in the Indian Ocean in summer. The Western Cape receives its rain in winter while the plateau receives its rain in summer. Temperatures over the land in summer will be higher than they are in winter. Most exams have questions on a synoptic map. You must be able to tell the difference between winter and summer maps (Table 9). Table 9 The differences between summer and winter synoptic maps Summer Winter ¢ Temperatures in the high 20s and low 30s ¢ Temperatures in the low 20s and high 10s e Kalahari high seldom seen e Kalahari high often seen ¢ Low pressure trough usually over land e Low pressure trough seldom over land e ©Mid-latitude cyclones usually to the south of e =©Mid-latitude cyclones usually over the land the land ¢ Never a tropical cyclone in the Indian Ocean ¢ Sometimes a tropical cyclone in the Indian e =Never rain on the plateau Ocean ¢ Often rain in Western Cape e Sometimes rain on the plateau e Seldom rain in Western Cape © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 43

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather Unit 4 Valley climates 1 How is the micro-climate in valleys influenced by the slope? Micro-climatology deals with the climates of small areas. Aspect refers to the direction a slope faces, and thus to the exposure of the slope to the Sun. The direction of the valley sides influence the angle at which the Sun's rays strike the Earth's surface. Although an equal amount of sunlight strikes each place, the sunlight striking the north-facing slope is distributed over a small area. On this slope the Sun's rays will be most effective and this slope will be warmer. The effects of aspect are more noticeable in winter when the Sun’s rays are at more of an angle. In the Southern Hemisphere the north facing slopes are warmest (Figure 29). Figure 29 Sun’s rays falling ona valley in winter in the Southern Hemisphere 2.1 The effects of aspect on human activities. Because in the Southern Hemisphere south-facing slopes are cooler there is less evapotranspiration. In the Natal Midlands the south-facing slopes are often wooded while the warmer north-facing ones consist of grass. In South Africa traditional communities prefer the warmer north-facing slopes of the escarpment rather than the valley floors and the south-facing slopes. In cities north-facing slopes are more popular for residential areas. In Europe agricultural activities are usually confined to the warmer south-facing slopes. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 44

TOPIC1 Climate and weather 3 What weather phenomena are associated with the micro- climate in valleys? 3.1 Anabatic and katabatic winds Valleys produce their own winds due to unequal heating of the valley slopes during the day (Figures 30 and 31). 3.1.1 During the day e Inthe morning, air above the valley slopes heats up more than air on the valley floor. Warm air rises towards crests, causing up-slope winds. ¢ Later in the day, with more heating, air from the valley floor becomes less dense and rises, causing an up-valley anabatic wind. calm sunny day high level return flow cloud over summit strong updraught above valley | Figure 30 Anabatic or valley wind © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 45

TOPIC1 Climate and weather 3.1.2 During the night e Asa result of terrestrial radiation, air on the high slope sides cools, becomes denser and flows down the valley sides to form a down-slope wind. e Later in the night, the air in the upper part of the valley cools, become denser and starts to flow down the valley. This causes a down-valley katabatic wind. e If the down-valley flow is not fast, frost and fog may develop, particularly in hollows. These winds, although usually gentle, affect the microclimates and human activities. For example, along the slopes in the Franschhoek valley rows of dense hedges are planted to obstruct the downward flow of cold air and keep it away from the vineyards below. During the dry season both anabatic and katabatic winds may become dangerous in the spread of bush and forest fires. Figure 32 Katabatic or mountain wind © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 46

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather 3.2 Inversions and frost pockets e Oncalm, clear, winter nights the air on the high ground on the sides of the valley is cooled by terrestrial radiation (night time cooling). ¢ The cold, more dense air sinks down the valley sides and collects on the floor of the valley, sometimes causing a frost pocket. ¢ The warm air that was on the valley floor rises onto the middle slopes of the valley, causing a thermal belt of warmer air (Figure 32). air on upper slopes or z hill tops cool due to cold air terrestrial radiation Figure 32 Temperature inversion: emissions are trapped by a layer of warm air in a valley. 3.4 Radiation fog ¢ Radiation fog, typically found in valleys is formed when nights are cold, clear and cloudless. e Under such conditions the Earth’s surface and the layer of the atmosphere in contact with it cool rapidly. e Ifthe dew point temperature is reached, condensation occurs and many minute droplets are formed and are suspended in the air. e Fog on the valley floor disappears rapidly during the course of the morning after isolation starts, when the Earth radiates heat into the atmosphere. 3.5 Utilisation of valley floors e Valley floors are often popular sites, because of their level topography, agricultural land and the availability of water. Frost hardy plants are grown on valley floors while sensitive plants are grown on the valley sides. Settlements develop in the thermal belt, which is the warmest part of the valley and its sides. ¢ Nocturnal inversions and katabatic airflow in valleys tend to create pollution in cities as the pollution cannot escape. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 47

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather 4 Urban climates 4.1 What are the differences and the reasons for the differences between rural and urban climates? Table 10 The urban climate compared to that of rural surroundings Local climate in Differences Reasons for these differences urban areas Annual mean 0,5-4 °C Urban areas consist mainly of artificial surfaces (like bricks, temperature higher concrete, tar) which absorb more heat. High-rise buildings have Winter minimum | 1-3 °C higher | larger surface areas, which absorb and retain heat. Fuel temperature combustion in factories and vehicles also contribute to temperature rise. Cloud cover 5-10% more Condensation can take place only if there are hygroscopic nuclei Fog in winter 100% more around which droplets can form. Pollutants like smoke and dust Fog in summer 30% more serve as condensation surfaces. Smog lowers visibility. Precipitation 5-15% more More precipitation is likely, because of a higher possibility of Snow fall 5% less condensation and cloud formation. The relatively warmer Thunderstorm 16% more, conditions in winter reduce the possibility of snow fall. Greater frequency especially in instability and strong convection over built-up areas can cause summer vertical cloud development, resulting in more frequent thunderstorms. Wind speed 25% lower; Buildings create a sheltering effect. This causes friction and they greater act as windbreaks. Buildings create wind channels and turbulent turbulence eddies form in streets aligned with high-rise buildings. Relative humidity | 6% less Lack of sources of moisture like vegetation and water bodies in cities limits evapotranspiration. Surface water is removed quickly by the urban drainage system and does not penetrate the ground. Dust, pollutant 10 times more | Combustion processes, the burning of fossil fuels, traffic and particles building activities add dust and smoke into the air over a city. Amount of solar Up to 30% The amount of sunshine reaching the surface is reduced due to radiation less the increased amounts of pollutants and clouds over cities. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 48

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather 4.2 What is an urban heat island? e A heat island is the hotter area of a city surrounded by the cooler urban fringe and rural areas (Figure 33). e The higher urban temperatures cause an urban heat island to develop over the city. This heat island reaches its greatest intensity above the city centre and diminishes towards the suburbs. Within this heat island the air is less dense and begins to rise. Cooler air from the suburbs moves in to replace this. ¢ Urban heat islands exist throughout the year, but their effect is more pronounced at night and in winter when temperatures are lower. This is also the situation when there is an anticyclonic subsidence of air, which often happens in southern Africa in winter. warm air from CBD can rise, dark brick buildings, resulting in convection concrete and tarmac store central heating from shops gutters and drains remove thunderstorms and release heat, which is released at rain quickly so less heatis of latent heat used to evaporate ge and offices in CBD can warm nights air in the streets high-rise buildings reduce wind speed at the surface — warm air can build up rivers can provide cool areas as heat is absorbed and used in evaporation suburbs increase urban sprawl, but low cool air comes in from sea —> I ; ‘ density land use, so more limited impact industry and offices release large quantities of heat, especially if buildings are poorly insulated concentrations of people in cities add to heat traffic pollution creates a dust zone, large park with grass, trees and adds heat as well and bushes, use up heat as CO,, SO, and diesel (evaporation) particulates Figure 33 Factors influencing urban heat islands 4. 2.1 What effects do urban heat islands have? e Increase human discomfort especially in summer. ¢ Cause heat stress and deaths during heat waves. e Increase conditions suitable for the spread of disease caused by insects such as mosquitoes and fleas. ¢ Reduce visibility due to smog, particularly in winter. e Increase smog. e Increase air conditioner use leading to release of more heat and greenhouse gases, which degrade local air quality. e Increase biological activity, for example, growing season length, which is positive. ¢ Reduce ice and snow in winter, which is positive. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 49

TOPIC1 Climate and weather Table 11 The urban heat island during the day and night Features Vertical dimension Day e Heating results in increased turbulence, thus a relative decrease in stability of the lower atmosphere. © Heat island grows vertically and therefore is less concentrated. e Pollution is dispersed over a greater area. cC" sinking warm air from anticyclone Lie sll lh, eta al tt th 800m rural suburbs i suburbs rural Night e = Asitis cooler at night the height decreases and is more concentrated. ° The ‘heat bubble’ is now denser and shallower and takes on a dome shape due to the cooling of the air. ¢ Pollution is concentrated in the dome. rural suburbs city suburbs rural 4.3 What is a pollution dome? A pollution dome is a mass of polluted air in and above a city or industrial area. This air is prevented from rising by the presence of an inversion above it. If there is a wind, the pollution will be carried downwind to form a pollution plume. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 50

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather 4.3.1 What are the effect of a pollution dome on people and the environment? Urban pollution has both seasonal and long-term effects on humans and the environment. ¢ Lead poisoning may result from petrol fumes and old paint peeling off buildings. e Respiratory discomfort and asthmatic attacks may increase due to smoke emissions. e The pollutants tend to increase cloud cover and precipitation. ¢ Insolation is reduced by pollution, especially in the morning when the Sun’s oblique rays have to penetrate an even thicker layer of pollution. e The pollutants cause smog, which contributes to higher temperatures, reduces visibility and is harmful to humans and plant life. ¢ The release of oil and coal combustion emissions in the air forms acid rain. This pollutes rivers and lakes, causes damage to buildings and kills plants and fish. e Increased use of fossil fuel powered plants also increases emissions of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO:), which contribute to global climate change. sinking cold air creates an inversion layer cold air drains into valley Pollutants mixing depth is conceal. ba: shallower in winter the basin — Figure 34 The formation of air pollution on a winter's morning in Pietermaritzburg 4.4 How can the heat island effect be reduced? The reduction of the urban heat island effect depends on a number of factors. Some of them are within and some outside of a community’s control. Climatic conditions and the relief cannot be changed. Decision makers can select energy-saving strategies that will create a healthier and more sustainable environment. Creating urban green spaces like parks and roof gardens, appropriate building design and public transport, can all contribute to reducing urban heat islands. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 51

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather Questions Question1 | Match the definitions in the left hand column with the key concepts in the right hand column. You should try to do Question 1 as a closed-book test. If this is difficult you could do it as an open-book test (using the glossary at the back of the Via Afrika Geography Grade 12 Learner’s Book) and then do it again as a closed-book test. A knowledge of these concepts is vital for success in the final examination. You should keep working at it until you can do it correctly. 11 Surface of contact between two air masses of A 30°S different temperatures 1.2 Name in Japan for tropical cyclones B_ | Advection 1.3. | Another name for a high pressure cell c Air mass 1.4 Climatic conditions on a local scale D Anabatic 1.5 | Gravity or mountain winds E | Anticlockwise 1.6 | Causes mid-latitude cyclones to move from west to F Anticyclone east 1.7. | Urban area of higher temperatures surrounded by G_ | Aspect tural area of lower temperatures 1.8 | Vertical movement of air HK | Backing 1.9 | Horizontal movement of air | Berg wind 1.10 | Surface of contact between the cold polar air andthe | J Berg winds warm westerlies 1.11 | Another name for a low pressure cell K Clockwise 1.12 | Second stage in the formation of tropical cyclones L Coastal low 1.13. | An elongated low pressure cell M_ | Cold front 1.14 | Direction of movement around a high pressure cellin | N Condensation nuclei the southern hemisphere 1.15 | Climatic conditions on a regional scale QO | Convection 1.16 | Refers to the direction in which a slope faces in P Cumulonimbus relation to the Sun’s rays 1.17 | Causes tropical cyclones to move from east to west Q_ | Cut off low 1.18 | Large body of air which has distinct characteristics in | R Depression temperature 1.19 | Area of calm in the centre of a tropical cyclone Ss Dew 1.20 | An elongated high pressure cell T Dust dome 1.21 | Direction of movement around a low pressure cell in U Easterlies the southern hemisphere 1.22 | Upslope winds in a valley Vv Eye 1.23. | Type of front where warm air overrides cold air W_ | Family of depressions © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 52

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather Question 2 | Indicate the best answer to the multiple choice questions below. As with Question 1 try to do it with your books closed. If it is too difficult do it as open-book test and later again, as a closed-book test. 2.1 Extra-tropical cyclones have both cold fronts and warm fronts. What weather is associated with cold fronts as they pass over a point? A D wind veers, decrease in temperature, rise in dew point and there is cloud cover wind veers, increase in temperature, pressure increases, rise in dew point and there is cloud cover wind backs, rise in dew point temperature, increase in temperature, pressure drops and there is cloud cover wind backs, decrease in temperature and pressure drops 2.2 What effect do extra-tropical cyclones have on South African weather? A B Cc D rain and cool air onto the Highveld rain throughout South Africa winter rainfall in the SW Cape and cold air in the interior lower coastal temperatures only 2.3. The main difference between tropical and extra-tropical cyclones is that extra- tropical cyclones have fronts. What are fronts? A B Cc D warm air found in front of cold air the one side of an extra-tropical cyclone the beginning of cyclogenesis the transition zones that separate the different air masses 2.4 In what season do extra-tropical cyclones usually occur? A moo Ww winter in the Southern Hemisphere autumn in the Southern Hemisphere summer in the Southern Hemisphere spring in the Southern Hemisphere at all seasons © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 54

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather 2.5 Figure 1shows a graph of weather conditions over a 48 hour period of a tropical cyclone. ® 42 48 hour direction of movement Figure 1 2.5.1 Line 1 on the graph (Figure 1) shows the relationship between time and... A wind speed dew point temperature air temperature atmospheric pressure moo Ww rainfall 2.5.2. Line 2 on the graph (Figure 1) shows the relationship between time and ... wind speed dew point temperature air temperature atmospheric pressure BOO wD PP rainfall 2.5.3. Line 3 on the graph (Figure 1) shows the relationship between time and... A wind speed dew point temperature air temperature atmospheric pressure moO Ww rainfall © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 55

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather 2.5.4 Line 4 on the graph (Figure 1) shows the relationship between time and... A B Cc D E wind speed dew point temperature air temperature atmospheric pressure rainfall 2.6 — Ifa tropical cyclone does not reach land, what other factors can account for its dissipating? A B Cc D E decrease in air pressure decrease in moisture rise in temperature increase in air pressure both B and D 2.7. Howcan you identify a tropical cyclone on a synoptic chart? ed 0 ao DW warm and cold fronts synoptic symbol, closed isobars and high wind speed isobars and synoptic symbol the existence of a high pressure both A and B 2.8 What is the basic pattern of air movement over South Africa? A D E South Africa is dominated by the easterlies, the westerlies and tropical cyclones South Africa is dominated by extra-tropical cyclones and berg winds South Africa is dominated by three shifting high pressure cells and frontal depressions that originate in the westerly wave belt South Africa is dominated by the Kalahari cell, thunderstorms and the plateau Both A andB 2.9 How does the ocean affect the South African weather? A moo Ww leads to extremes of temperature and reduces precipitation moderates the temperature and increases the chances of precipitation influences the aspect, relief and summer rain leads to high rainfall on the east and west coasts raises the temperatures on the plateau © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 56

2.10 2.13 2.14 TOPIC 1 Climate and weather From where does interior of South Africa get most of its rain? ed 0 oO DW disturbances along the moisture front the Zimbabwe air boundary the westerly wave belt the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone tropical cyclones How does the interior plateau affect South Africa’s climate? A B Cc D E increases winter precipitation with height above sea level decreases winter precipitation with height above sea level increases temperature with height above sea level decreases temperature with height above sea level both A and D The interior of South Africa is dominated by sub-tropical anticylonic circulation. What does this mean? ed 0 ao DW the easterlies and the westerlies join together there is a high pressure belt within the easterlies there are mid-latitude cyclones affecting the Western Cape winters are generally dry and sunny both C and D What causes the westerly wind belt to move north in winter? A B Cc D E the apparent movement of the rainfall belt summer air temperature winter air temperature ocean currents the apparent movement of the overhead sun from the Tropic of Capricorn to the Tropic of Cancer An important aspect of climatology is micro-climatology. What is micro- climatology? A moO the climate of places with a small range of temperature the climate of towns and their surrounding rural areas the climate of a small area the climate close to the ground both A and C © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 57

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather 2.15 Why is there a greater frequency of fog and precipitation in cities as compared to the surrounding rural countryside? A moo Ww artificial heat sources higher population density more hygroscopic nuclei artificial materials both A and D 2.16 What makes up air pollution in the cities? A B Cc D E combustion, chemical gases and exhaust fumes smog and dust particles carbon monoxide and lead in petrol BandC A, Band C 2.17. What is a temperature inversion? ed 0 ao DW a dry adiabatic lapse rate in the atmosphere when temperature decreases with height in the atmosphere a wet adiabatic lapse rate in the atmosphere when temperature increases with height in the atmosphere both A and C 2.18 Which of the following best describes a heat island? A cities form a small island of higher temperatures surrounded by cooler temperatures in the rural area because of global warming both rural and urban areas are heat islands is a city that is, on average, warmer than other world cities the area in the city that is hotter by day but colder by night than the rural areas an area above a city that has more pollution than the surrounding rural area 2.19 Which is correct about an urban heat island during the day? A B due to general subsidence the horizontal component increases due to a decrease in stability and an increase in turbulence the vertical dimension of the heat island decreases due to an increase in stability and an decrease in turbulence the vertical dimension of the heat island increases © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 58

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather D due to a decrease in stability and an increase in turbulence the vertical dimension of the heat island increases E none of these 2.20 What effect does the location of mountain and hill slopes have on a valley climate? A at lower latitudes slopes facing the equator are coolest B at higher latitudes slopes facing the equator are warmest Cc at the poles the slopes facing the equator are coolest D at the equator the slopes facing away from the Sun are coolest E both A and C 2.21 Table 1 below shows temperatures on two consecutive July days at 06:00 ona farm in the Drakensberg. Table 1 Temperatures °C Height First day Second day Station X 800m 5 -6 Station Y 1400m -1 1 2.21.1 In Table 1 the weather responsible for causing the differences in temperature is likely to occur when ... A anabatic winds are blowing B the winter is warm Cc there is a cloud barrier at 1 300 m D a cold front is situated over the area E the nights are clear and cold 2.21.2 In Table 1 the most likely answer for the lower temperatures at X is... ¥ has a sunny aspect while X has a north-facing slope A B X has snow while Y has not Cc the air at X is drier than that at Y D during the night there has been rapid terrestrial radiation and cold air has dropped down the valley sides E Band D 25x2=(50) © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 59

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather Question 3 The Grade 12 final exam, usually, if not always, has questions based on a synoptic map. Make sure you can do this question and it should help you at the end of the year. 3.1 Study Figure 2 showing a Southern African synoptic weather map and answer the questions that follow. Figure 2 3.1.1 Name each of the high pressure systems A and B. 3.1.2 Identify the climatic feature with low pressure at C. 3.1.3. Draw a fully labelled cross-section from D to E showing the sectors and ai 2x2=(4) (2) r movement. 5x2=(10) 3.1.4 Name the line marked F and state its pressure in hPa. 3.1.5 What season does this synoptic weather map represent? 2x2=(4) (2) 3.1.6 Give three reasons for your answer based on evidence visible on the synoptic weather map. 3x2=(6) © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 60

TOPIC 1 Climate and weather 3.2 Refer to the station model of Port Elizabeth below when answering the questions that follow. 30 > 3.2.1. Name the type of wind (not direction) that has resulted in the conditions as indicated by the station model. (2) 3.2.2. Account for the atmospheric conditions being experienced in Port Elizabeth. 4x2=(8) 3.2.3. Describe two measures that can be put in place to reduce the impact of possible veld fires resulting from these conditions. 2x2=(4) (42) TOTAL MARKS [182] © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 61

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TOPIC 2 Geomorphology Topic 2 Geomorphology Unit 1 Drainage systems in South Africa Running water on the surface of the Earth is the most dominant agent of change in the physical landscape. The study of the relief features shaped by running water, for instance mountains, hills, floodplains, valleys and waterfalls is known as fluvial geomorphology. A fluvial geomorphologist studies everything in connection with rivers, from the pebbles in the river bed to the velocity of the water flow, to determine the condition of the river. 1 What are the characteristics of drainage basins? The drainage basin acts as a system with inputs, flow, storage and outputs. Water and sediment move through the system. A drainage basin is the total area of land surface drained by a stream network (Figure 35). rainfall Figure 35 Components of a drainage basin © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 65

TOPIC 2 Geomorphology 1.1 Features of a drainage basin The main features of drainage basins are illustrated in Figure 35 and defined in Table 12. Table 12 The main features of drainage basins catchment area The area over which rain falls that is caught by a drainage basin river system Amain river with all its tributaries watershed An area of high ground separating two drainage basins tributary A river that joins another larger river river mouth Sea or lake where the river ends source Where the river begins confluence The place where two rivers join water table The upper level of underground saturated rock surface run-off The surface flow of water groundwater Water found under the ground interfluve High lying area or spurs between two river valleys infiltration Movement of water through soil into the ground 2 What are the different types of rivers? Permanent rivers flow all year round and are always in contact with the water table. The Tugela River is an example. Periodic rivers only flow during the rainy season. They are in contact with the water table only in the rainy season. The Limpopo River is a South African example. Episodic rivers only flow after heavy rain. These rivers are found in regions where there is low rainfall, which evaporates quickly. The Auob and Nossob Rivers of the Kalahari in Northern Cape are examples. Exotic rivers span two types of climatic regions. These rivers usually rise in high rainfall areas and flow into dry regions The Orange River (or Gariep) rises on the eastern side of South Africa, and flows through the drier western side before it reaches the Atlantic Ocean. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 66

TOPIC 2 Geomorphology 3 What are drainage patterns? Stream channels create a variety of drainage patterns on the surface of the Earth. By studying the stream patterns of an area, one can learn much about underlying structures and rock types (Table 13). Table 13 Drainage patterns Parallel drainage pattern Requirements Characteristics Example Recently uplifted sloping plain e = The main streams flow parallel (or Tributaries of the Steelport River in e = Rock type uniformly nearly) to each Limpopo resistant to erosion other. e = The tributaries enter the main streams at very small angles. Dendritic drainage pattern Requirements Characteristics Example Rock is uniformly resistant to erosion. Pattern is not dependent on geology. e The pattern is tree- shaped. e = The tributaries join the main stream at acute angles. Most rivers in South Africa, for example Tugela, Mooi, Umgeni Trellis drainage pattern View Requirements Characteristics Example ridges of B® resistant = rock _ ‘softer rock Parallel ranges of fold mountains or alternate layers of hard and soft rock. A strong main stream The pattern is dependent on the relief and the ¢ Tributaries meet the main streams at right angles. e = The main streams cut gaps through the mountains. geology of the area. Buffels River at Laingsburg © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 67

TOPIC 2 Geomorphology Radial drainage pattern Requirements Characteristics Example Dome-shaped hill, | ¢ Streams radiate Koffiebus, Teebus conical hill, mesa, outwards froma butte central high point. Rectangular drainage pattern View Requirements Characteristics Example Well jointed rock with joints exposed at the surface ¢ Rivers flow in exposed joints. e Rivers and tributaries have right angled bends. Rivers in the Waterberg (Limpopo) Centripetal drainage pattern Requirements Characteristics Example . A central basin ora low lying area such as a lake or a marsh ¢ Streams radiate inwards from a surrounding higher area. ¢ ~The opposite of a radial drainage Common in the flatter parts of Namaqualand pattern Deranged drainage pattern Requirements Characteristics Example Geologically young areas ¢ ~Haphazard pattern e Numerous lakes and swamps ¢ Streams enter and leave swamps and lakes randomly. Recently glaciated areas such as the Canadian Shield © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 68

TOPIC 2 Geomorphology 4 What is drainage density? Drainage density refers to the average length of the streams in the area of a drainage basin. Drainage density can be calculated by making use of the following formula: Drainage density = total length of streams in the basin (km) area of the drainage basin (km2) Drainage density can be described as high and low (Figure 36). Figure 36 Equivalent areas with high drainage density (left) and low drainage density (right) ¢ More infiltration will cause fewer rivers to occur, causing a low drainage density. ¢ More runoff will cause more rivers to occur, causing a high drainage density. 5 How do you identify stream order? Drainage basins can be described and compared by means of a ranking system known as stream order. Streams without tributaries are first order streams. When two first order streams join they result in a second order stream and when two second order streams they form a third order stream and so on. When a stream of a lower order joins a stream of a higher order the higher one remains unchanged. This arithmetic process is known as geo-adding. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 69

TOPIC 2 Geomorphology EX Cia a re iS Aig. NY =e 1 127 \ & 2 1 sO 1 r? EN aC Oo 1 yf X S i SAS ike - I 1 1 i NpNiea A165 KLE Figure 37 Topographic map with the stream order indicated by numbers The following laws of stream orders show the relationship between stream order and factors such as gradient, number of streams, stream length and the size of the drainage basin. e There are more streams of a lower order than of higher order. e The lower the stream order, the steeper the gradient. ¢ The lower the stream order, the shorter the length of the stream. ¢ The lower the stream order, the smaller the drainage basin. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 7o

TOPIC 2 Geomorphology 6 What is the nature of river discharge? River discharge is the volume of water that flows down a river. The stream flow can be either laminar or turbulent. e Laminar flow is found where water flows over a level and even river bed. The water moves as parallel sheets (Figure 38). ¢ Turbulent flow occurs where the river bed is uneven and steep. The water moves in a bubbling, turbulent manner, continually changing levels (Figure 39). ee ee Oe ae Figure 38 Laminar flow Figure 39 Turbulent flow © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 71

TOPIC 2 Geomorphology Unit 2 Fluvial processes 1 What are river profiles? A river uses energy to do its ‘work’ of erosion, transportation and deposition of sediment, and to move a body of water in its channel from its origin to its mouth. In this way, the river valley is continually deepened and widened. River profiles are described as either transverse (cross) profiles or longitudinal profiles. 1.1 What is a transverse river profile? The transverse profile shows the shape of the river valley from one bank of the river to the opposite bank. The shape is dependent on whether vertical erosion or lateral (sideways) erosion is the dominant force. The cross profile of a river looks like a V- shape. The shape of the cross profile changes throughout the course of the river (Figure 40). It can help you to see if erosion (vertical or lateral) or deposition is taking place. 1. UPPER COURSE 2. MIDDLE COURSE 3. LOWER COURSE (YOUNG STAGE) (MATURE STAGE) (OLD STAGE) t i 1 | H meanders f floodplains ds and waterfall | river cliffs 1 oxbow lakes ! | deltas 1 I 1 I ' \ transportation \ deposition J I I vertical corrosion i valley widening alluvium deposition sea _ deposition) a. fe steep gorge-like or open, widening gently- very gently-sloping, V-shaped valley sloping valley smooth, wide valley Figure 40 The transverse profile of a river in its upper, middle and lower courses © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 72

TOPIC 2 Geomorphology 1,2 What is the longitudinal profile? The longitudinal profile shows the changes in the altitude of a river’s course from source, along its channel to sea level. Usually the longitudinal profile has a concave shape. It will have a steep gradient at the source and a gentle gradient at the mouth (Figure 40). The upper part has the most: POUIEE! © turbulence © roughness ° friction The lower part has the: © greatest discharge * lowest velocity et / mouth Figure 41 The longitudinal profile of a river and associated landforms 1.2.1 Temporary and permanent base levels in the longitudinal profile of a river The lowest level at which a river can erode is called the permanent base level. Sea level is called the permanent base level because the river cannot erode downwards any further. Temporary base levels such as a dam, rapids or a waterfall could be found along the course of a river. All base levels are temporary, except the sea, which is the ultimate base level (Figure 41). 1.2.2 The stages of a river seen on topographic maps Figure 42 shows the features of the three stages of the Berg River in the Western Cape on topographic maps. In the upper course (Figure 41) the contours are closer to each other, indicating steep slopes and short tributaries. In the middle course, the contours are further apart. The gradient becomes more gradual and tributaries are longer. The slope in the lower course is very gradual. Therefore deposition of sand, meanders and braided streams are found in this course. The river becomes wider as it flows from its source to the mouth. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 73

TOPIC 2 Geomorphology UNS 5 Carinusoruglh 6! soe Figure 42 Three stages of the Berg river in the Western Cape 2 What are fluvial landforms? The greater the velocity of a river, the greater the amount of energy will be available to transport material and cause erosion. Deposition of sediment takes place when the speed of the river reduces and the energy of a stream decreases. As a result, different landforms are formed, along the course of a river. 2.1 Floodplains Floodplains are natural features of many rivers. They are flat and are on the sides of the river. Floodplains are usually found in the lower course of a river where the valley is widened by means of lateral erosion but smaller flood plains can also be seen in the middle course. When the river bursts its banks in a flood sediment is deposited on either side of the river (Figure 43). This builds up after each flood. Typical landforms of a floodplain are natural levées, meanders, oxbow lakes, braided streams and deltas. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 74

TOPIC 2 Geomorphology bluffline | width of floodplain coarser material levee deposited first Figure 43 Cross section of a floodplain 2.2 Natural levées During periods of overbank flooding, the coarsest material will be deposited first and this can form a natural embankment, called a natural levee, next to the river (Figure 43). Levées can be strengthened artificially to act as flood barriers. terrace-edge of meander belt point bar ~ convex bend depostion oxbow lake formed by meander neck being cut through Figure 44 Typical landforms on a floodplain 2.3 Meanders Meanders are curves or bends found along the course of a river (Figures 44 and 45). They are usually found in the middle course or lower course of a river, and constantly change their shape and position. Meanders move across the floodplain by eroding the curved outside banks (Figure 45). © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 7

TOPIC 2 Geomorphology erosion — x channel width Ls \ \: ! deposit radius of i ay flow ’ \ \ _— oa 7 pool er P (o} oo siffle 2 ; point of maximum erosion Figure 45 Meanders move laterally by erosion and deposition 2.4 Oxbow lakes As erosion continues on the outside bends (undercut slopes) of the meander, the neck of the meander gets narrower. During a flood, the river breaks through the neck and shortens its course. The cut ends of the meander are sealed by deposition and a oxbow lake is formed (Figure 46). The oxbow lake may eventually dry up due to evaporation, and be filled with sediment. lateral erosion deposition > fastest current Figure 46 The formation of an oxbow lake © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 76

TOPIC 2 Geomorphology 2.5 Braided streams Braided streams are streams that have many channels and islands of sediment between those channels (Figure 47). When a river does not have the energy to carry its load the load is deposited in the river bed. Figure 47 Topographic map of Kanoneiland showing braided streams and intervening islands 2.6 Waterfalls and rapids Waterfalls and rapids are usually found in the steeper upper course of a river. A waterfall forms when a river, after flowing over hard, resistant rock, meets a band of softer, less resistant rock. The river erodes the softer rock faster than the harder rock (Figure 48). Rapids are smaller scale versions of waterfalls. more resistant strata knickpoint migrates slowly upstream erosion undercuts more resistant strata hard rock creates uneven slope, causing rapids Figure 48 The formation of waterfalls and rapids through erosion © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 77

TOPIC 2 Geomorphology 2.7 Deltas When a river reaches the sea or a lake it slows down, loses energy and deposits its load. If the load of sediment cannot be carried away by tides and ocean currents a delta is formed. Layer upon layer is deposited until the sand and mud may build upwards and outwards to form a roughly triangular delta. No South African river forms a visible delta as the tides and currents remove the sediment before it can settle. 3 What is river grading? A graded river is in a state of equilibrium and neither erodes nor deposits. A graded river has a gently sloping, concave profile. The river illustrated in Figure 49A has an ungraded profile, because it contains a waterfall and a lake. These are temporary bases of erosion. Erosion will exceed deposition at the waterfall, and deposition will exceed erosion at the lake. lake: deposition will exceed erosion until the feature is filled in smooth concave profile decreasing in angle and gradient towards the mouth Figure 49 Comparison of a river with an ungraded profile (A) and a graded profile (B) © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 78

TOPIC 2 Geomorphology 4 What is river rejuvenation? River rejuvenation takes place when there is an increase of a river’s speed and erosive power. The rejuvenated river erodes a new valley in the old one (Figure 50}. Before rejuvenation After rejuvenation original graded section of river knickpoint rejuvenated river flowing in a valley-in-valley due to increased erosion tributary river terrace rapids Figure 50 River rejuvenation 4.1 Causes of rejuvenation River rejuvenation may develop as a result of: ¢ a worldwide lowering of sea level e raising of the land through forces in the Earth’s crust ¢ asignificant increase in rainfall ¢ arapidly flowing tributary that joins the main stream e river capture where the increased volume of water enlarges the erosion capacity of the stream. 4.2 Landforms associated with rejuvenation 4.2.1 Knickpoint A knickpoint is a break in the slope of a river profile caused by a rejuvenated river. There is often a waterfall, called the knickpoint waterfall, at this point. Augrabies Falls on the Orange River (Gariep) is a knickpoint waterfall. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 79

TOPIC 2 Geomorphology 4.2.2 Terraces When rejuvenation of a river flowing on a wide valley floor occurs, a new valley is carved into its own floodplain. This produces steps on either side of the valley. These are terraces, and they often occur in pairs on either side of the valley (Figure 51). Paired alluvial terraces Figure 51 Paired alluvial terraces 4.2.3 Incised meanders An incised meander is a deep, steep-sided meander (bend) formed by the severe downwards erosion of an existing meander. Such erosion is usually brought about by the rejuvenation of a river. Incised meanders form when rejuvenation occurs ina stream which is already meandering. 5 What is river capture or stream piracy? River capture (stream piracy) occurs when a powerful river cuts back at its source by headward erosion and captures the headwaters of a neighbouring river. This often occurs through a process of abstraction. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 80

TOPIC 2 Geomorphology 5.1 Abstraction Abstraction occurs when the stream on one side of the watershed is a more energetic stream than the stream on the other side, because it runs down a steeper slope. More rapid erosion of the steeper slope causes the watershed to move (Figure 52). In South Africa abstraction occurs mainly in the Drakensberg, where the rivers of KwaZulu-Natal flow eastwards down a steep gradient over a distance of 200 km to the Indian Ocean. The westward flowing Orange River flows along a more gentle gradient over approximately 2 000 km to the Atlantic Ocean. watershed before abstraction watershed after abstraction Figure 52 Abstraction due to more rapid erosion of a steep slope. Rivers A and B flow on opposite sides of the watershed. Because river B flows down a steeper slope than river A, river B will be more energetic, and therefore causes erosion to be faster. The watershed moves from position 1 to position 2. As a result, the drainage basin of the more energetic stream (B) grows. 5.2 River capture River capture occurs where a river cuts through a watershed and intercepts a river flowing on a higher level. An example of this is the Kunene River in Namibia. The Kunene used to flow to the Etosha pan, but was intercepted in its middle course by an eastward eroding river from the coastal plain to the sea (Figure 53). —z NAMIBIA Atlantic Ocean Figure 53 River capture by the Kunene has cut off the water supply to the Etosha Pan. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 81

TOPIC 2 Geomorphology 5.3 What are the features associated with river capture? The following features are associated with river capture (Figure 54). ¢ The captor stream is the river which captured the waters of the other river. e The river whose waters were captured is called the captured stream. e The stream that has lost its water now flows in a valley that is too big for the stream. This stream is called the misfit stream. ¢ The elbow of capture is the place where the stream piracy has taken place. e The wind gap is the dry river valley with river gravel between the elbow of capture and the misfit stream. Figure 54 Features associated with river capture 6 What are superimposed and antecedent drainage patterns? You have already learnt that drainage patterns are influenced by the hardness or softness of the underlying rock and the patterns of faults or fractures in these rocks. Sometimes the drainage pattern does not relate to the rock structures or landscape over which it flows. When this occurs, it is due to superimposed drainage or antecedent drainage. The difference between superimposed and antecedent drainage is that the superimposed stream is younger than the structure through which it flows while the antecedent is stream is older. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 82

TOPIC 2 Geomorphology 6.1 Superimposed drainage patterns Superimposed drainage exists where a river established its course in rock layers which have been removed by erosion (Figure 55). The stream which subsequently imposed its course on underlying rocks of a completely different nature is called a superimposed stream. Superimposed streams are younger than the structures through which they cut. A Before removing of overlying rock layer B_ After removal of overlying rock layer Figure 55 A superimposed stream, before erosion of the overlying rock layer (A) and after erosion (B) 6.2 Antecedent drainage patterns An antecedent stream existed on an earlier landscape that was subsequently raised. The stream was able to maintain its original course, in spite of uplift or the formation of a mountain or ridge from below. The stream cut through the obstruction as it was formed. The uplift may be due to folding, faulting or warping. The term antecedent refers to the fact that the course of the river developed before the uplift occurred (Figure 56). A before uplift B after uplift as a result of faulting of the plateau Figure 56 An antecedent stream eroding into an uplifted plateau © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 83

TOPIC 2 Geomorphology Unit 3 Catchment and river management Management of catchment areas (the area over which rain falls that is caught by a drainage basin) and rivers occurs when people try to control or alter the natural flow of water. 1 Why is managing drainage basins and catchment areas important? Drainage basins are managed for irrigation purposes. It is important to manage river flow by building dams to ensure a permanent source of water. Rivers need to be managed to provide flood control. This can be done by preventing settlement below the flood line, by building dams, or by diverting water away from settlements. Catchment management is necessary to protect water resources and make water use sustainable. Rivers can be used for recreation, like water sports. caravan parks and holiday resorts are also sometimes found along rivers and next to dams. Management is needed to control pollution. 2 What are the impacts of people on drainage basins and catchment areas? River water is polluted by industrial effluent, agricultural run-off and untreated sewage. The nature of run-off can be changed by building dams. Removal of vegetation can lead to flooding. Cities and other structures built on the floodplain of the river decrease infiltration. This can lead to flooding in urban settlements. Swamps, which serve as sponges during flooding, are drained. The ecology of rivers and their catchment areas is disturbed by the removal of water for irrigation, industry, mines and domestic use. Meanders can be eliminated by means of channels. Inter-basin transfer of water involves the transfer of water from areas with a water surplus to those with a water shortage. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 84

TOPIC 2 Geomorphology Questions Question1 Answering multiple choice questions is an excellent way to revise your work. Answer as many as you can without looking at the text book. Use your text book to help you with the ones you cannot answer correctly. Match the question with the correct option. Figure 1 11 In Figure 1 the line marked 1 shows ... A an interfluve B a drainage basin Cc the area surrounding rivers D the river mouth E the headwaters 1.2 In Figure 1 the point marked 2 shows ... an interfluve a drainage basin A B Cc a watershed D a confluence E none of these © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 85

1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 TOPIC 2 Geomorphology In Figure 1 the stream order at 2is ... none of these In Figure 1 the line at 3 shows ... A B Cc D E an interfluve a drainage basin a watershed a confluence a tributary In Figure the area around 4 shows... A B Cc D E the headwaters the mouth an interfluve confluences none of these In Figure 1 the line at 5 shows ... A B Cc D a tributary a drainage basin a watershed a confluence an interfluve Streams generally erode ... A moo Ww along both banks in a stretch of straight water along the inner banks of a meander along the outer banks of a meander along the stream bottom none of the above © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 86

1.8 1.9 1.12 TOPIC 2 Geomorphology Which of the following statements are NOT true? A B Cc D interlocking spurs are formed by deposition vertical erosion occurs in steep parts of the river’s course rapids are a series of little waterfalls ox-bow lakes are formed from wide meander loops Which of the following features would you NOT find in the lower stage of a river? ed 0 ao DW flood plain rapids levees estuaries CandD If all other factors remain constant except the stream becomes ... at some point, the water will speed up. A shallower B narrower Cc sandier D Bandc Braided streams occur where the channel floor is... A very deep B very narrow Cc very wide D very flat E very flat and wide Which statement is correct? A As rivers reach their lower course they widen, the gradient decreases and the discharge increases. B As rivers reach their lower course they widen the gradient decreases and the discharge decreases. Cc As rivers reach their lower course they get narrower, the gradient decreases and the discharge increases. D As rivers reach their lower course they get narrower, the gradient decreases and the discharge decreases. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 87

1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 TOPIC 2 Geomorphology Which statement describes the upper course of a river valley? A B Cc D E narrow valley floor, steep sides, and gentle gradient narrow valley floor, gentle sides, and steep gradient wide valley floor, steep sides, gentle gradient wide valley floor, gentle sides, steep gradient none of these Which of the following is true of vertical erosion? A widens the valley, common in the upper stages of a river, when the gradient is gentle deepens the valley, common in the lower stages of a river, when the gradient is steep deepens the valley, common in the lower stages of a river, when the gradient is gentle deepens the valley, common in the upper stages of a river, when the gradient is gentle deepens the valley, common in the upper stages of a river, when the gradient is steep Controlling the river can be done by which one of the following? A increase the capacity of the river channel, straighten the river channel and build relief channels decrease the capacity of the river channel, straighten the river channel and build relief channels increase the capacity of the river channel, make more bends in the river channel and build relief channels increase the capacity of the river channel, straighten the river channel and build no relief channel Knickpoints are best associated with ... ed 0 ao DW backswamps meandering streams deltas waterfalls and rapids oxbow lakes What is a superimposed stream? A a stream that has been captured and then rejuvenated © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 88

D TOPIC 2 Geomorphology a stream that exists on a elevated landscape a stream that has been captured and then takes its course over a faulted or folded landscape a stream that takes its course from a former overlying layer 1.18 What is the base level of erosion? A E when a river enters a lake or a dam, the water level represents the base level of erosion when the river has cut down to the pediment and there can be no further scarp retreat when the river is rejuvenated by the global drop in sea level when the river has reached the pediment both A and B 1.19 A graded stream occurs... ed moa ww when velocity and discharge are balanced when the river is saturated and deposits material on its bed when there is neither erosion nor deposition when the river has been rejuvenated both A and C 1.20 The longitudinal profile of a river ... A a is the diagrammatic representation of the shape of the river channel as seen from above causes the permanent and temporary base levels of a river the convex shape of the river from the source to the mouth of the river the diagrammatic representation of the relationship between the relief and length of a given river both A and D 20x2=(40) © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 89

TOPIC 2 Geomorphology Question 2 | Learning the correct meanings to the terms is another excellent way of revising your work. You cannot answer a question if you do not know the meaning of the words used in the question. Match the columns of these terms commonly used in this section. Term Meaning 2.1 | Antecedent drainage | A | The point where two or more streams meet and form a larger stream 2.2 | Base level B | The wearing away of the land by weathering and erosion 2.3. | Braided river C_ | The concept of equilibrium related to the profile of a river 2.4 | Confluence D | Occurs when all irregularities such as waterfalls have been eliminated 2.5 | Dendritic drainage E | Become deepened and cut down into the landscape usually as a result of increased erosion caused by rejuvenation 2.6 | Denudation F | A pattern of rivers in which the flow of water is away from a central high point 2.7. | Deposition G_ | Adrainage pattern which looks like a tree when viewed from above 2.8 | Drainage basin H_ | The area which is drained by a river and its tributaries 2.9 | Grade | The level below which the land cannot be denuded by rivers 2.10 | Graded profile J The laying down of material which has been removed by denudation 2.11 | Headward erosion K_ | Shows the changes in the altitude of a river’s course from source, along its channel, to sea level 2.12 | Incised meander L_ | Ariver system that was formed before the uplifting of relief as a result of earth movements 2.13 | Interfluve M | Abend orcurve in the course of a river 2.14 | Knickpoint N | Astream that is too small for the size of its valley which may be because of river capture 2.15 | Long profile O | Ariverthat splits into two or more channels that rejoin further downstream 2.16 | Meander P | The renewal of the erosive power of a river because of a change in gradient in the rivar’s long profile or the arrival of extra water 2.17 | Misfit Q_ | Found on the inside of a bend in a meander 2.18 | Radial drainage R_ | Abreak in the longitudinal profile of ariver which may be as a result of rejuvenation caused by the uplift of the land 2.19 | Rejuvenation S | The area between two rivers 2.20 | Slip-off slope T | Atype of erosion which occurs at the source of a stream 20x2 = (40) © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 90

TOPIC 2 Geomorphology Question 3 Study Figure 2 and answer the questions that follow. 34 3.2 33 3-4 35 = Ss Sy S>>S>5 > 57° Figure 2 Name the process illustrated in Figure 2. 1x2=(2) List the labels for the characteristic features A to E shown on map Y in Figure 2. 5x2=(10) Describe the steps in the process that led to the landscape in map Y. 3x2=(6) Explain why river B in map Y has been rejuvenated. 1x2=(2) List three landforms that could result from this rejuvenation. 3x2=(6) (26) © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 91

TOPIC 2 Geomorphology Question 4 Study the maps in Figure 3 below, showing two areas with different drainage densities and patterns, and then answer the questions that follow. 4a 4.2 43 4.4 45 er Figure 3 Give two reasons why area A has a lower drainage density than areaB. 2x2=(4) Calculate the stream order at point X in area B. 1x2=(2) Explain why a drainage density as shown in area A will cause problems for the people living in the area. 2x2=(4) Describe three ways in which the activities of people can have an impact on area a 3x2=(6) Name the drainage patterns in areas A and B. 2x2=(4) (20) TOTAL MARKS [86] © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 92

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TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement Topic 3 Rural and urban settlement Unit 1 Study of settlements 1 What is the concept of settlement? A settlement is a group of people who live, work and interact together in a cluster of building structures, interlinked by communication. 1.1 Nature of settlements A settlement may be as small as a single house in a remote area or as large as a huge city. A settlement may be permanent or temporary. An example of a temporary settlement is a refugee camp. However, a temporary settlement may become permanent over time. 2 What are site and situation? 2.1 Site Site is the land on which a settlement is built. Early settlers were looking for water supply, fuel, farming land, shelter and defence (Figure 57). Ideal sites tended to be: e flat or gently sloping e well drained (not marshy) and free from any risk of flooding e close to a permanent water supply e sheltered from strong wind ¢ steep-sided hills. relief — high enough to be safe from flooding, low enough to be sheltered from wind defence — hilltop or inside of river meander provides protection resources ~ timber or rock needed for building transport - site ona crossroads, river or the coast makes access to other places easier fuel — wood needed to burn for cooking and heat soil - deep fertile soil makes farming easier Figure 57 Factors that influence the selection of a site for a settlement © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 95

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement 2.2 Situation Situation is the location of a settlement in relation to the surrounding area (Figure 58). A settlement with good access to natural resources and to other settlements will grow in size. At a larger scale, towns grow and prosper from a favourable situation. convergence of routeways along river valleys, gaps in hills and towards river crossings give high nodality to the settlement recreation and leisure resources contrasting economic regions promoting trade. mineral and energy resources flat land; bridging agricultural point; no flood tesousces risk; defence; good drainage; water supply am SITUATION employment opportunities in nearby urban centres Figure 58 Factors that influence situation 3 What are the differences between rural and urban settlements? A rural settlement is a single function settlement where most of the people are engaged in a primary economic activity, usually farming. This may range from large commercial farms to small subsistence farms and is described as unifunctional. An urban settlement is a multi-function settlement and consists mainly of people engaged in secondary and tertiary activities. Urban settlements are characterised by more numerous, larger and more densely position buildings and more complicated infrastructure. They are multifunctional. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 96

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement 4 Settlement classification according to size, complexity, pattern and function Table 14 Classification of settlements Size Complexity Population size Purpose of buildings (services) Isolated farmstead: 1-10 Hamlet: 11-100 Village: 101-2 000 Smallest settlement type made up of single farmhouse. Loose grouping of farmsteads — more or less six houses and a church. Anumber of essential functions. The main function is primary, but the following activities also occur— butcher, baker, primary school, and possibly a doctor’s surgery. Town: 2001-100 000 City: 100 001-1 000 000 Metropolis: 1000 001—2 000 000 Conurbation: 2 000 001-10 000 000 Number of functions increases — major supermarkets, secondary schools, cinemas and, usually, railway and bus stations. Wide range of functions, including headquarters of the region’s administration. Large city or urban agglomeration. Largest area of urban development — the result of originally seperate towns and cities growing outwards and joining together. Megalopolis: over ° Amegacity § 000 000 World city ¢ — Large city with international function Pattern Function Refers to the spacing of buildings. Rural settlements can be either: Refers to economic activity Dispersed, with buildings apart from each other A settlement is rural if it is unifunctional, which means it has one function, usually a primary activity like agriculture. Nucleated, with buildings close together Urban settlements are always nucleated or clustered; they have a dense grouping of buildings. Urban settlements are multifunctional, which means they have more than one function or many Zrunmcrrracy functions. These functions will be secondary, tertiary or quarternary. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 97

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement large distance apart Increase in size of settlement, higher population and more services small Figure 59 Classification of settlements in terms of size © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 98

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement Unit 2 Rural settlements 1 How do site and situation affect the location of rural settlements? 1,1 What factors influence the choice of site? Originally settlements had to be at good defensive sites and satisfy the basic needs of its inhabitants. These basic needs are: e The availability of drinking water. This could be from rivers or springs. e The availability of building materials. This would mainly be trees but includes rocks and thatching grass. ¢ Closeness to arable land. The inhabitants need to have fertile soils to grow their crops. ¢ The availability of transport routes. ¢ Pasturage for livestock. Their cattle, goats or sheep have he able to graze. e Fuel for warmth and cooking. This would usually be from trees but in many treeless areas cow dung is used as a fuel. 2 Classification of rural settlements according to pattern and function 2.1 Pattern Rural settlements can be either nucleated or dispersed. 2.1.1 Dispersed or isolated rural settlements These occur where isolated farmsteads are located each on its own land and sometimes kilometres from its nearest neighbour. 2.1.2 Nucleated (clustered) rural settlements A nucleated (or clustered) rural settlement pattern comprises a denser group of dwellings and other buildings. In farming villages the farmers usually live as a group in a central village and work in the surrounding fields by day. The buildings are usually clustered around a central point such as a water point. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 99

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement Table 15, Advantages and disadvantages of dispersed and nucleated settlements Dispersed Nucleated Advantages are economic in nature: Farmer works for him/herself and keeps own profits. Farming is more efficient. Farmer can use his/her own initiative. Farmer lives on his/her own single tract of land. Farmer can maximise the use of machinery as it does not have to be shared with other farmers. Advantages are social in nature: e Daily social contact — community involvement. e People do not live in isolation. e Protection is easier when people are together. e There are enough people to share the work. e There is a possibility of co-operative farming. ° Farmers can agree each to plant a different crop and share the cost of ploughing and fertilising land. Disadvantages are social in nature: There is no social contact, far from neighbours. No protection. Lack of security as people living on their own are more vulnerable. No help if the farmer is sick or disabled. Essential services (like medical care, schools, shops) are far away, which can be dangerous if there is an emergency. Disadvantages are economic in nature: e There is no independent decision making. ¢ Individuals cannot show initiative. e Fields are scattered, which wastes time. e Machinery is shared. ¢ = Itis difficult to be economically successful. ¢ Travelling from the village to the farm is time- consuming and uneconomic. ¢ Plots may be too small to be economically viable. e Modern farming methods cannot be applied effectively. 2.2 Function All settlements except the very smallest have a variety of functions. In rural areas the main functions of settlements have been: to provide agricultural services, including a market for produce, and so they become transport centres to provide a place for defence in times of war. 3 What are the reasons for different shapes of settlements? Shape or form refers to the plan outline of the built-up area of a settlement. Settlements may be linear (ribbon-like), rectangular, circular or star-shaped (Figure 60). The shape of a settlement is influenced by: positive factors, such as transport routes and flat land which encourage growth negative factors, such as flood-prone valleys, which limit growth. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 100

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement 3.1 Round and square villages Square or round settlements have houses clustered around a focal point, which is the centre of importance for that community. This may be a well, kraal, church, market square, or village green. 3.2 Linear villages Linear settlements are a combination of dispersed and nucleated patterns. The farmsteads are arranged close to one another on both sides of thoroughfares such as roads, rivers, valleys and railway lines The properties in linear villages are long and narrow and have a narrow front along the central thoroughfare. 3.3 T-shaped and cross-road villages Cross-road settlements can be T-shaped settlements or star-shaped. They are found at road junctions. i Dispersed or isolated houses : | nucleated cruciform village round village green village nucleated T-village linear settlement nucleated hamlet Figure 60 Different shapes of rural settlements © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 101

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement 4 Land use in rural settlements 4.1 What are the characteristics of rural land use? Land use refers to the function of an area of land — the purpose for which land is used. Land use in rural areas has different features from that in urban areas. Some of these are: e residences for country workers, commuters and seasonal workers e farming and forestry ¢ natural resources development of minerals, water supply. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 102

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement Unit 3 Rural settlement issues 1 What is rural-urban migration? The percentage of people living in cities increases steadily through rural-urban migration. Poor harvests, lack of money and inadequate services are ‘push’ factors that encourage people to move away from rural areas. The possibility of paid employment, better education and healthcare ‘pull’ people to cities. The cycle of poverty illustrated in Figure 61 explains the situation which traps many rural populations with declining economic prospects. Decline in agricultural employment ane Reduced employment opportunities Reduced demand for \ services Emigration Deterioration My of age/sex structure Reduction in population KS Reduced rate of natural increase Figure 61 The cyclical nature of rural decline, or poverty cycle 2 What are the causes and consequences of rural depopulation on people and the economy? The period of rapid urbanisation is caused mainly by the attraction of industrial jobs, which causes rural depopulation. Movement to the city is partly due to ‘rural push’ (repelling action) and partly due to ‘urban pull’ (attraction). These are summarised in Table 16. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 103

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement Table 16 Some push/pull factors causing urbanisation and rural depopulation Push factors (repelling migrants | Barrier (reasons why moving Pull factors (attracting migrants from the countryside) may be difficult) to the cities) Unemployment Costs Better career prospects Mechanisation on farms Dangers Better medical and family Poor medical and family planning | Distance planning facilities services Transport Better educational opportunities Few primary and secondary Leaving family Better housing schools Better social life Poor housing and services Better shops, transport and Limited socialising opportunities communications Widespread poverty Higher wages and standards of Natural hazards living Population pressure leading to Less threat from natural hazards insufficient land Relatives have migrated 3 What are the effects of rural depopulation and the strategies to address them? Central place towns that are accessible to rural areas depend on the buying power of the farming population. Reduced spending in towns means that many shops and businesses in these towns cannot survive, and they close. Employment opportunities decrease and more people migrate to cities. The rural landscape gradually becomes depopulated. The downward cycle of rural poverty starts. Stopping, preventing and reversing this trend involve a highly organised system of planned, co-ordinated action on the part of the government, local authorities, and business. 4 What are the social justice issues in rural areas? 4.1 Access to resources Poverty and lack of access to resources hinder access to social justice in rural areas worldwide. In order to alleviate rural poverty, the present government aims to develop viable co-operative businesses for small-scale farmers. Linking small-scale farmers with commercial farmers enables them to participate in both the domestic market and the lucrative global markets. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 104

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement 4.2 Land reform In South Africa, land is a highly contested resource. On the one hand, private ownership of productive land favours a racial minority, while on the other hand there is a need to strike a balance between ownership and the benefits from use of land. The current South African government aims to alleviate poverty, especially in rural areas, by transferring land ownership to the millions of South Africans who have been denied access to this economic resource. It intends to achieve this objective through land reform programmes. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 105

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement Unit 4 Urban settlement 1 What are the origin and development of urban settlements? 1.1 Urbanisation of the world’s population On a global scale towns and cities are expanding rapidly. By 1995 over 45% of the world’s population lived in urban areas. In most MEDCs over 70% of the population lives in towns and cities. By contrast, in many African and Asia LEDCs, only 33% of people are urban dwellers. 1.2 The growth of towns and cities Urbanisation in MEDCs began as a result of the Industrial Revolution during the nineteenth century. People migrated from the countryside to the towns looking for work in factories. Over time, towns expanded to become cities. Urban growth is the physical expansion of towns and cities. 2 How do site and situation affect the location of urban settlements? A combination of physical factors making up the site and human factors determine where urban settlements are located. 2.1 Physical factors The physical factors affecting the development of a site for urban settlement include: ¢ availability of fresh water e underlying rock and soil structure e relief — too steep slopes make building difficult, therefore flat land is preferred e drainage — flooding is avoided ¢ aspect of slope — slopes facing the Sun are warmer (north facing slopes in the Southern Hemisphere and south facing slopes in the Northern Hemisphere) ¢ resources — minerals will encourage industrial development. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 106

TOPIC 3 2.2 Social factors The social factors affecting the selection of a situation for urban settlement include: 3 How can urban settlements be classified according to Rural and urban settlement transport routes — nodal points (where roads and rivers meet), towns near mountain passes or ports bridging points over rivers — to allow mobility harbours — to promote trade defensibility — hill-top settlements were important building materials — for construction food supply — to support growing populations. function? junction town - developed at important transport junctions, for example De Aaris a road-rail junction town gap or gateway settlement - ata physical ‘gap ‘such as a pass througha mountain range, for example Worcester specialised town — specialises ina particular function, for example, the university in Stellenbosch; mining, for example Phalaborwa; tourism, for example, Plettenberg Bay break-of-bulk settlements — where one mode of transport is changed for another, for example Durban sno central place — provides services to surrounding population, for example Paarl Figure 62 Examples of urban settlements classified according to their function © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 107

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement 3.1 Examples of settlement functions Central places — A central place is an urban settlement that provides urban services for the surrounding rural community. For example, Upington provides services to people living in the sparsely populated Northern Cape. Ermelo and Cradock serve as centrally located markets and service centres for the surrounding farming areas. Trade and transport settlements — Urban settlements that established due to trade and transportation. For example, East London developed around a harbour. Break of bulk points — Locations where one type of transport is replaced by another. For example, Durban harbour, where goods which have been transported by road or rail are loaded on board ships, and the other way around. Specialised cities — Centres with one dominant function and the location of the centre is decided by the occurrence of natural resources such as fish, minerals, timber, agriculture or tourism, for example, Plettenberg Bay. Junctions towns — Urban settlements that developed at important transport junctions such as river crossings, railway and road junctions. Junction points occur at junctions of rivers, rail routes and roads. For example, De Aar (Northern Cape) is a road-rail junction. Gateway towns or gap towns — Gateways are natural gaps or passes through physical obstacles such as mountains. Roads converge at a point to make use of the gap. For example, Worcester (Western Cape) is situated near the Hex River Mountains Pass leading to the Karoo. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 108

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement Unit 5 Urban hierarchies 1 What is urban hierarchy? 1.1 Urban hierarchy The term ‘hierarchy’ refers to the arrangement of a settlement in a sequence or order of importance. At the bottom of a settlement hierarchy there are many low-order rural settlements, like villages, which offer few services. At the top of the hierarchy there is likely to be one high-order urban settlement, like a city, which will provide many specialised services. 1,2 Central place Most urban settlements are central places supplying urban services to their surrounding rural communities 1.3 Threshold population The minimum number of people required to support a shop or a service so that it remains profitable is called the threshold population. Large shops selling luxury items require a large threshold population while small shops selling convenience goods such as bread and milk have a low threshold population. A primary school has a lower threshold population than a high school. 1.4 Sphere of influence The area that people travel from to use a shop (or service) is its sphere of influence, sometimes called the catchment area. Shops with a large sphere of influence depend on good transport links to bring shoppers to them. A primary school has a smaller sphere of influence than a high school. 1.5 Range of goods The range of goods is the maximum distance people are prepared to travel to use a shop or service. People will travel further to buy a luxury motor car than they will to buy bread and milk. Low-order services will have small threshold populations and small range. A primary school has a smaller range of goods than a high school. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 109

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement 2 What are lower and higher order functions and services? Functions and services are activities provided to meet people’s needs. Examples include shops, schools, banks and sports centres. These shops and their services can be hierarchically organised and ranked from lower order functions to higher order functions (Figure 63). There is a direct correlation between population size and the range of services offered by settlements. Larger settlements offer a wider variety of services within a broader range than smaller settlements. Examples of services Settlement size and the services offered cities general hospital concert hall more functions 5 high order department store than average university art gallery — secondary school technical college swimming pool middle order cinema % fewer functions | pee store than average anks attorney primary school butcher newsagent low order doctor post office Lit hall Number of services provided Population size of settlements —_—~> Figure 63 Hierarchical ordering of functions and services in terms of settlement size 3 What are lower and higher order centres? There are more numerous lower order centres (smaller towns) and fewer higher order centres (large cities). Smaller towns have smaller populations, fewer services, more low order businesses and smaller ranges. Large cities have large populations and larger numbers of services, including many high order businesses with large ranges. A settlement’s position on the hierarchy is determined by the number of functions and not only by the size of the population. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 110

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement Unit 6 Urban structure and patterns 1 What are the internal structure and patterns of urban settlements? 1.1 Land use zones Urban areas are not random developments, but have internal structure. If you walk through a town or city you will often find distinct land use zones. Each area (or zone) of a city has a distinct function, for example housing or industry. A study of land use maps shows that the different land use types are not distributed in an urban area in an arbitrary manner or in a disorderly way but in patterns, as Figures 64 and 65 show. GRID IRON Advantages: regulated and easy to easy to control Disadvantages: many intersections; traffic congestion; many stop streets leads to accidents as people become impatient The linear shape is the result of the city being located between two parallel physical barriers, for instance Paarl that is between the river and the mountain. Geometric shapes are found in pre planned cities and are built like this for safety reasons. extend; easy to find your way around and Advantages: all major roads lead to the CBD; few intersections and is attractive Disadvantages: very expensive; streets block size changes Everybody wants access to the city centre and this result in a circular shape. The city develops around a main point of attraction for example, church or market. Figure 64 Street plans (ground plans) in urban areas RADIAL a r_ IRREGULAR Advantages: roads don’t all look the same and makes area look attractive; fewer intersections; safer as there are many crescents and cul-de-sacs Disadvantages: traffic congestion; easy to get lost; traffic congestion; easy to get lost: traffic can become chaotic. Many cities developed a kind of star shape with new extensions radiating in several directions along the transport routes. Satellite shaped cities developed when commuter towns are situated close to the city. These commuter towns could be planned or unplanned. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 111

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement Rural-urban fringe - This is an area in the city where urban functions gradually invade the surrounding rural area. There is no definite division between rural and urban functions. 7X Geqtt? Zone of decay — This lies on the Cr periphery of the CBD. ‘eC = Track % S 7 b atig bY ELUNE 5S) f f & . Sy in big cities, CCK f Y/ YY i industries ar SO an AANA Dy ; the outskirts aes Z Orlane nancc—se. Commercial -Owingtotraffic gue to pollution eal recat if congestions inthe streets it (air and noise), an A theronvilla ues! has become more difficult to transport 5 More Ye eae in eA reach the CBD. This decreased facilities, ZY L, S UULUUE accessibility of the CBD has ol é “pf encouraged the migration of pa ie © = \ x [| functions that used to take Saas ZG CS Kot Course = place in the city centre, like power and ote uf > shops, banks, hotels and pester ance ay ret = | Residential area - Residential areas cover the Oto d es __2 _ largest portion of the total built-up surface of the uy ra ‘city (between 70% to 80% of the city area). Jo cap thecapis the commercial : heart of a town or city. Figure 65 Urban land use shown on topographic map 2828AB BETHLEHEM 1,2 Urban profile The urban profile shows a cross-section of the city from the CBD to the periphery (Figure 66). Most urban profiles show a concentration of high buildings surrounded by low buildings as you move towards less built-up areas. Together these form the morphological structure of a city. main railway station INDUSTRY AND BUSINESS new office and shopping complex new industri 7 old city buildings, bus in ‘old housing new industry c planned on cathedral, castle: station fA neighbourhood edge of urban new old industry on i industry y _ shopping centre area new low old 4 very fee houses, old housing new lensity terrace some flats, near city pe i housin: housing housing centre offices, new high rise Deing cleared 8 developement new high rise housing HOUSING AND SHOPPING CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT Figure 66 An urban profile is a view of a city as seen from the side. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 112

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement 1.3 What are the factors influencing the morphological structure of a city The major factors influencing the morphological structure of a city are various physical factors, planning and transport. 1.3.4 Physical factors ¢ Relief —- Cape Town developed between Table Mountain and the harbour. The steep slopes of Table Mountain and the coastline determined the structure of the city. Pretoria lies between Magaliesberg and Daspoort mountains and has a linear shape. ¢ Microclimate — Local climate also influences the form of an urban area; warmer north-facing slopes are preferred. ¢ Soil conditions — Fertile soils attract settlement. 1.3.2 Planning e Planned cities — These cities are planned and are built as one unit and have an ordered structure and a modern street plan, for example Sasolburg. ¢ No planning — An urban area developed quickly, like in the case of Kimberly, or sometimes it is an ancient city. The cities have no specific city centre or street pattern. e Piecemeal planning — Settlements in which each new suburb may have a different appearance, but there is evidence of urban planning. Most South African cities are examples of piecemeal planning. 1.3.3 Transport Transport plays a vital role in the development of a city’s structure. As transport systems improved and more people were able to buy cars, the towns became less compact. People could live away from the city centre and commute to their work places. Asa result of this, urban sprawl is evident along the transport routes in many cities. 2 Models of urban structure Urban land use is often explained by models. A model is a simplified theory that attempts to explain how things work. No model works perfectly but they do help to explain some of the features of urban structures. There are a number of these models: the concentric zone model, the sector model, the multiple nuclei model, the modern American-western city, the Third World city and the South African city. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 113

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement 2.1 The concentric zone, sector and multiple nuclei models ZONAL MODEL Central business district Factory zone Zone of transition zone if working men’s homes Residential zone Commuter’s zone Land use is arranged ina series of concentric rings or zones around the city centre. The idea is that the city has grown outward in all directions from the centre, adding new buildings around the edges. The process is rather like the annular growth rings of trees. It means that the urban fabric should get older towards the centre, The width of the zones varies according to the density of building. SECTOR MODEL Central business district Wholesale light manufacturing Low class residential Medium class residential High class residential 6e. Land use is arranged in wedges or sectors which radiate from the city centre. Growth follows a linear pattern along major transport routes or physical features such as river valleys. We assume that once a particular type of land use establishes itself in a area it attracts similar activities (like industry) and repels dissimilar ones (like high status housing). NUCLEI MODEL a Central business district \ e Wholesale light manufacturing Low class residential Medium class residential High class residential Heavy manufacturing Outlying business district Industrial suburb Distinctive land uses form small areas or nuclei such as the central business district, housing estates, industrial estates, and office and retail parks. Often similar activities /types of land use benefit from being clustered together. Figure 67 The three main models of urban structure are the concentric zone model, the sector model and the multiple nuclei model. 2.2 The modern American-western city The modern American—western city is a type of city that developed as a result of rural- urban migration and the development of the motor car. Most of its population now move from the CBD to the suburbs. This causes commercial decentralisation. Unlike the Third world city, most of the economy generated in the modern American city is in the formal sector. 2.3 The Third World city Cities in developing countries tend to develop their own distinctive pattern described by the Third World city model (Figure 68). This differs in several ways from the land use model in developed countries. There is rapid growth due to large scale rural-urban migration and high rates of natural population increase. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 114

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement Central Business favelas: recent informal District (CBD) housing (poor quality, often self-built housing) peripheral: older informal housing (improved over time, more permanent) a ( \ \ (iMate detached houses \ industry: along transport routes Figure 68 Land use zones in LEDCs 2.4 The South African city The South African city model is unique and — has a different set of characteristics from those of other countries in the world. Apartheid policies and laws like the Group Areas Act produced an unnatural system of urban land use in cities. The Group Areas Act divided South African cities into racial areas bufferzone ee = physical border (Figure 69). It was illegal for designated yf ; groups to live or own land in certain areas. > mace Black people were forcibly removed from their homes into outlying townships. With the ee = 1. 2 “enone democratic elections of 1994 the landscape of Asianfeslowed wou ates aie the South African cities started to change. ae a ‘tgunds tr Now all people can reside in any area . . . wae . Figure 69 Model of a South African apartheid city irrespective of their racial identity. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 115

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement 3 Changing urban patterns and land use in South African cities 3.1 Changes in the CBD As a City’s size increases, the CBD grows and becomes progressively differentiated into land use subzones (for instance, retailing, finance, administration, entertainment). Dynamic change in the CBD is constant, through extension, replacement and regeneration. The CBD expands into the surrounding area of old homes and service industries occupying these old homes — the zone of transition. This is known as the principle of invasion and succession. 3.2 Urban retailing The CBD used to be the most important retail area and most employers favoured this land use zone. In time, the CBD and the suburbs became more divided, resulting in commercial decentralisation. Neighbourhood shopping centres were established in the suburbs. The major forces causing this change were the following: ¢ increase in urban populations e the centrifugal expansion of suburbs e changes in shopping habits and greater mobility. 3.3 Residential changes in South Africa When buildings in a city are unsuitable for use in the present time, often they are not demolished completely. Instead, the front structure of the building is retained and new structures are built behind the original facade. This allows the old city structure to exist while the building is improved. The process is known as facadism. Sometimes old houses that are close to the city are improved and modernised. This is called gentrification. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 116

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement Unit 7 Urban settlement issues 1 Recent urbanisation patterns in South Africa There is a change in the demographic profile of South African cities. Cities attract skilled workers and increasing numbers of the youth who make up most of those who are unskilled, economically inactive and in search of employment. A corresponding change is taking place in rural areas. These areas are mostly former homelands, with limited economic activity. They are characterised by outward migration and a decline in the young population. The CBDs in South Africa have also seen changes with new shopping centres and altered transport projects, for example the Gautrain and Bus Rapid Transport in big cities. The CBDs have changed because of the decline in the number of people visiting the city centre. Many shops have moved to suburban shopping centres that are further away. People avoid traffic congestion and air pollution. There also has been competition to use the land on the rural-urban fringe. The main reasons for this are that at the rural-urban fringe land is less expensive, there is less traffic congestion and air pollution, and the environment is relatively unspoilt. In South Africa we have seen a number of office developments and high technology business parks developing on the rural-urban fringe. 2 What are the issues related to rapid urbanisation? It is very important to plan for the future of urban growth. In South Africa about 60% of the population is urbanised. With rapid ongoing urbanisation and expansion of cities urban areas are experiencing a greater demand for employment, basic services and infrastructure. These problems get worse as the city grows and are often worse in the CBD. 2.1 Lack of planning Lack of planning can lead to unhindered growth of cities, or urban sprawl. Urban sprawl can occurs when there are no laws to control what and where people can build, such as in South Africa’s informal settlements. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 117

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement 2.2 Housing shortages One of the major challenges that urban municipalities face is providing housing for existing and growing urban populations. The constitution of South Africa says that everyone has the right to have access to adequate housing. Despite having delivered about 220 000 houses a year, South Africa continues to face a major challenge in providing affordable accommodation in sustainable settlements. A shortage of housing means many people have no alternative but to live in informal settlements. 2.3 Overcrowding Overcrowding is one of the major problems for most urban areas. Urban areas are not ready to accommodate all the people migrating from the rural areas and some from neighbouring countries. Some of the migrants into the cities are not skilled enough to be employed in the formal sector and find it difficult to get employment. 2.4 Traffic congestion Large cities invariably suffer from congestion on roads. All kinds of conveyances — cars, buses, trams, trucks, trains, motor cycles and bicycles — use the transport network and slow down movement. This is particularly serious during the rush hour. 2.5 Problems with service provision South African cities face a problem of service provision. The greatest demand for services and infrastructure is mainly at the former low-income residential areas and informal settlements that lack clean drinking water, electricity, healthcare facilities, sanitation, solid waste disposal, housing and safe, reliable and affordable transport systems. 3 Growth of informal settlements and associated issues A major problem in African cities is the inability of the governments to provide adequate and affordable housing. The majority of residents do not have access to formal housing and related amenities, and generally live in informal settlements without service provision. Informal settlements are not planned therefore lack services. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 118

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement 4 How are urban areas in South Africa managing urban challenges? Urban settlements in South Africa are not static, they change over time. As South African cities have a history of apartheid, there now is rapid urbanisation and some urban settlements have been planned on new sites. Such cities are called ‘new towns’. New towns are urban settlements planned and built to ease the housing shortage in existing towns and cities. New towns include garden cities, edge cities and green helt cities. In these settlements all aspects of development are determined before construction begins. The ultimate aim is to provide not only access to services and amenities, but also to achieve environmental, economic and social justice and individuals and communities. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 119

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement Questions Question1 | Provide the best answer to the following multiple choice questions. 11 In rural areas the failure of industrialisation and the modernisation of agricultural practices has led to... A voluntary resettlement B rural-urban migration Cc basic need philosophy D formal resettlement push-pull factors 1.2 What are the advantages of nucleated rural settlement? economic political can make farming easier social all of these 1.3 settlement is classified as rural on the basis of ... the distance from a large town the number of people living in it the main function of its inhabitants the size of the settlement mPoowprrmoenw Pp none of these 1.4 What is the main difference between rural and urban settlements? A rural settlements are multi-functional while urban settlements are uni- functional B rural settlements consist of people engaged in primary activities while urban settlements consist of people engaged in secondary and tertiary activities Cc urban settlements are larger than rural D rural settlements are found in the country © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 120

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement 1.5 Which of the following is the most important cause of rural depopulation? A B Cc D E push and pull factors that cause growth in urban areas lack of employment chances lack of good schooling in the rural areas the ‘bright lights' of the city life less medical care in the rural areas 1.6 Many factors have encouraged rural-urban migration in South Africa. Identify one push and pull factor in this rapid urbanisation process. A B Cc D E employment opportunities and migrant labour squatting and migrant labour economic advancement and employment opportunities the dislike of the traditional rural life and the 'bright lights' of the city none of the alternatives 1.7 What two important events helped urban development? ed 0 ao DW the agricultural and industrial revolutions urban growth and democratic government uneven rural growth and population migrations counter-urbanisation and metropolitan expansion droughts and lack of birth control in the rural areas 1.8 Which of these statements is true? A The development of new shopping centres has mainly occurred in the CBD. The development of new industry has been in the rural-urban fringe. Cc The development of new industry has been in the CBD. D The development of new industry has been away from major transport links. E No development occurs in the transition zone. 1.9 Inthe Burgess' model of urban land use the middle class residential area is located ... A in the centre moo Ww near the wholesaling and light manufacture near the industrial areas between the working class and upper class in either B or C © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 121

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement 1.10 The urban land use model that divides a city into 'slices' radiating out from the CBD is called the ... A concentric zone model B bid-rent model Cc multiple nuclei model D sector model E apartheid model 1.11. What does the term gentrification mean? A the conversion of lower income neighbourhoods into more upscale communities B people moving from the inner city to townships located on the edge of the city Cc migrating from rural to urban areas D wealthy middle class people moving into the inner city and redeveloping the housing E AandD 1.12. When planning for a better environment in a city what two factors need to be taken into consideration? A moa ww traffic and pollution rural-urban migration and traffic traffic and over-population urban expansion and waste disposal traffic and the zone of transition 1.13. Improved means of transport have rapidly altered the city. What effects has better transport had on these cities? A B Cc skyscrapers, growth of suburbs, large city populations and pollution skyscrapers, multi-centred urban structures, renewal of the city centre skyscrapers, increase in population of the city centre, residential segregation depopulation of the city centre, post-modern urban centres, residential segregation, decentralisation of functions skyscrapers, centripetal forces, depopulation of the city centre 15x2=(26) © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 122

TOPIC 3 Question 2 Rural and urban settlement Provide the best description for each of the terms by matching the columns. 2.1 Bridge point A This attracts households and businesses towards the centre of the city 2.2 Central Business District B Roads running parallel to each other with others crossing at right angles 2.3 Central place c Also called low order goods 2.4 Centrifugal force D A basic framework of roads, power, water supplies and schools and hospitals 2.5 Centriptal force E Awaterway crossing point and important in locating settlements 2.6 Commuter F Asystem of grading the various types of settlement according to size 2.7 Convenience goods G A point in a network where routes meet or intersect 2.8 Functions H The area between the built up town and countryside 2.9 Green belt | Selling good, usually from a shop 2.10 | Hierarchy of settlements J The minimum number of people in a region required to support a particular shop or service 2.11 Grid pattern K A person who travels (often some distance) daily from home to place of work in a large city 2.12 | Infrastructure L The central part of a town or city, which is likely to contain many offices and business headquarters 2.13 | Node M This pushes households and businesses away from congested , polluted, high density and expensive inner-city areas. 2.14 | Retailing N The area around a shop, settlement or central place which is affected by the goods and services on offer 2.15 | Ribbon development (e) Urban expansion along roads 2.16 | Rural-urban fringe P Deterioration especially of the older parts of the town 2.17. | Sphere of influence Q The physical spread of a town in an unplanned, sometimes disorderly manner 2.18 | Threshold population R Provides goods and services to that rural area 2.19 | Urban decay s The general appearance and the major landmarks of an urban skyline 2.20 | Urban profile T The services, amenities and goods available in a settlement 2.21 | Urban sprawl U An area of rural land surrounding an urban area 21x2=(42) © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 123

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement Question 3 Study Figure 1 showing rural settlement in KwaZulu-Natal and answer the questions that follow. Figure 1 A rural settlement in KwaZulu-Natal 3.1 State why this settlement is classified as a nucleated rural settlement. — 2x2=(4) 3.2. Many of the young men in this area have moved to the cities of Pietermaritzburg and Durban. 3.2.1 State the name of this movement. 1x2=(2) 3.2.2. Describe three push and three pull factors that might have caused the young men to move. 6x2=(12) 3.2.3. Describe three barriers the young men might have met in their move to the city. 3x2=(6) 3.3. There are advantages and disadvantages of living in a nucleated rural settlement. 3.3.1 Describe three social advantages. 3x2=(6) 3.3.2. Describe three economic disadvantages. 3x2=(6) (36) Question 4 ‘There are distinct similarities between remote rural areas and inner cities: a decreased demand for labour, unemployment, low wages, a lack of skills, a decline in services, limited new investment, a high dependency ratio, dereliction, blight and a high cost of public services.’ © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 124

TOPIC 3 Rural and urban settlement Write an essay of approximately ONE page in which you evaluate the validity of the statement above. 10x2=(20) TOTAL MARKS [124] © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 125

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TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa Topic 4 Economic geography of South Africa Unit 1 Structure of the economy 1 What are economic sectors? 1,1 The primary sector The economy of the country is made up of a number of economic sectors. The primary sector extracts or harvests products from the Earth or the sea. This includes farming, forestry, fishing, mining and quarrying. 1,2 The secondary sector The secondary sector manufactures finished goods from products produced in the primary sector. All manufacturing, processing and construction lie within the secondary sector. Activities associated with the secondary sector include metal working, engineering, food processing, textile production and the chemical industries. 1.3 The tertiary sector The tertiary sector of the economy is the service industry sector, providing services to the general population and businesses. Activities associated with this sector include retail and wholesale sales, transportation and distribution, entertainment, restaurants, tourism, insurance, banking, healthcare, and law. 1.4 The quaternary sector Quaternary sector activities provide information and expertise with an emphasis on information and computer technology. It includes data processing, use of geographical information systems (GIS), consulting and research. It is a very small sector and is often included in the tertiary sector. 1.5 An example of how the sectors are linked e A farmer produces wool from sheep — primary activity. e The factory makes the wool into a jersey — secondary activity. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 129

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa e The factory uses the railways to transport the jerseys to the shop and the shop sells the jersey to a consumer. The shop uses a bank and its premises and stocks are insured. These are all tertiary activities. ¢ The shop employs a computer company to use a geographic information system (GIS) to determine the range of goods and location of competitors. This is a quaternary activity. 2 What are the economic sectors’ contributions to the South African economy? 2.1 The gross domestic product (GDP) The gross domestic product (GDP) is one of the main indicators used to measure the size of a country’s economy. It represents the total value of all goods and services produced over a specific period. 2.2 GDP and development If a country is highly developed, only a small proportion of the population is employed in the primary sector, considerably more people are active in the secondary sector, while the majority are involved in the tertiary sector. In developing countries the economically active population is engaged mainly in primary activities, while a smaller percentage of the workforce is employed in tertiary and quaternary activities. 2.3 The changing nature of South Africa’s economy Figure 70 shows how South Africa’s economy has changed in the last 100 years, from a less economically developed country to one that is now more highly developed. A greater proportion of the economically active population is employed in the tertiary sector, and proportionally fewer people are employed in the primary sector. piideeracirites tertiary activities 1910 1920. 1930 1940-1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 20002010 Figure 70 The changing percentage contribution of the economic sectors to South Africa's GDP © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 130

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa 3 How can we use graphical and statistical information about the economy? Graphs of employment in various sectors through time (like Figures 70 and 71) can be used to study comparative levels of development and economic growth. Primary 10,7% Primary 7% Total employment 12 336 000 ve 2001 Total employment 12 975 000 2011 Figure 71 Comparison of employment by sector in the South African economy: 2001 and 2011 © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 131

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa Unit 2 Agriculture 1 What is the contribution of agriculture to the South African economy? Agriculture contributes a small and declining share to South Africa’s GDP. Agriculture is an important economic sector because it provides income and food for the population. Agriculture is a significant provider of jobs, especially in the rural areas, and a major earner of foreign exchange. South Africa exports more food than it imports. The contribution of agriculture to the economy consists mainly of four factors: ¢ direct contributions to gross domestic product (GDP) ¢ supply of food to the population ¢ contributions to the country’s balance of trade ¢ employment of workers. Figure 70 shows the steady decline of agriculture’s contribution to the South Africa’s GDP, from 15% in 1955 to 2,4% in 2010. This does not mean that agriculture is decreasing in importance. It means that the other sectors, especially the tertiary sector, are growing faster than the agricultural sector. © animal production 80 000---~--- M horticulture --~--~--~~----~--~-~-~~-~~~~-~----~------ © field crops Value of agricultural production 2007-2011 (R million) 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Figure 72 The value of agricultural production: 2007-2011. Field crops are mainly maize and wheat. Horticultural products consist of fruit, vegetables and flowers. Animal products are mainly cattle, sheep and chickens. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 132

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa 1.1 Direct contribution of agriculture to the gross domestic product In 2011 the contribution of agriculture to the GDP was approximately R64 billion. The agricultural sector has grown by an average of 12% per year since 1970, while the total economy has grown by 15% per year over the same period. This resulted in agriculture’s share of the GDP dropping from 8% in 1970 to 2,4% in 2010. 1,2 Supply of food to the population South Africa is one of the few countries in which agriculture is able to supply enough food for the population, although food prices are rising quickly. South Africa produces more than is needed for domestic consumption. 1,3 Contribution to the country’s balance of trade Normally about 25% of South Africa’s field crop production and 34% of horticultural (fruit and vegetables) production is exported. Almost the whole wool clip is exported. About half the exports are in processed form and agricultural exports are about 10% of South Africa’s total exports. 1.4 Employment Employment in agriculture reached its peak in 1971, when 1639 000 people worked on commercial farms. Since then, like most agricultural countries, in South Africa machines have replaced human labour in many processes. The agricultural employment figure in 2011 dropped to 406 000 — a loss of over 1,2 million workers. The development of more and better machines and larger farms to use them on contributed to this. 2 What are the roles of small-scale and large-scale farmers? 2.1 Large-scale commercial farming Large-scale farming is the production of crops for sale in retail outlets such as shops. In commercial farming crops such as wheat, maize, sugar cane, fruit, vegetables and meat are sold all over South Africa and on world markets. The main objective of commercial farming is to make a profit. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 133

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa 2.2 Small-scale subsistence farming Subsistence farming is a form of small-scale farming, usually intensive, in which nearly all of the crops or livestock raised are used to maintain the farmer and the farmer’s family, leaving little, if any, surplus for sale. The work is usually done by family members, often women, children and the elderly. 3 What are the main products produced for home and export markets? Pe -——j Maize oe VZZ, Sugar oy \ or 4 {[[]]{) Wheat fo Citrus fruit - Cc (iby Deciduous fruit =>, ; ere * iia Sub-tropical fruit ~. By SS Ne & | ——S ian! = 7 \, ae — a J a. Figure 73 The location of the main crop and fruit producing areas in South Africa 3.1 Maize Maize is the country’s most important crop. It is the basic food for many people, it is used as a livestock feed, and is an important crop for both the home market and the export market. Maize is grown commercially on many farms, mainly in North-West, Mpumalanga, Free State and KwaZulu-Natal, where there is summer rainfall of at least 500 mm per annum. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 134

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa 3.1.1 The importance of maize to South Africa ¢ Maize is an important part of the South African diet. © Maize is also eaten indirectly through its use as an animal feed in chicken, cattle and pig farming. e Itis used in the production of food products such as beer, cheese spreads, instant coffee and many others. ¢ It provides direct employment to about 20 000 people and their families. ¢ It consumes products from other industries, such as fertiliser, irrigation equipment, herbicides, fuel and farm implements. e It earns valuable foreign exchange. ¢ It provides the staple starch for millions of people depending on subsistence farming. 3.1.2 Trade balance The quantity of maize produced varies from year to year. In good years maize is exported. It is imported in years when the rainfall is low. 3.2 Wheat South Africa’s annual wheat production has remained more or less steady since the 19708, ranging from about 1,5 to 2 million tons. The winter rainfall areas of the Western Cape and the eastern Free State with late summer and early summer rainfall produce nearly all of South Africa’s wheat. Most of the wheat is grown on highly mechanised, large-scale, commercial farms. 3.2.1 The importance of wheat to South Africa. As urbanisation increases bread consumption rises. Migrants to the city cannot grow maize as they can in the rural areas and bread takes the place of maize in the city. All our bread and pasta is made from wheat, so it is a very important crop. Wheat farmers employ about 25 000 workers and buy fuel, fertiliser, machinery and seed. Recently South Africa has been importing wheat. 3.3 Sugar cane Sugar cane is grown by 35 300 large-scale and small-scale farmers in the wetter areas of KwaZulu-Natal and southern Mpumalanga lowveld. More than 33 000 are small scale growers producing nearly 10% of the total crop. With the growth of economic development and empowerment of previously disadvantaged people, the participation of black farmers in sugar cane production is increasing constantly. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 135

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa 3.3.1 Exports Sugar is a major export crop. No sugar is imported and the value of exports is about R1-2 billion annually. 3.4 Fruit Fruit is grown all over South Africa where there is enough rainfall or irrigation water is available. South Africa is the third largest exporter of oranges after Spain and the USA. ¢ Sub-tropical fruit such as bananas, mangoes and avocado pears are grown in the warmer regions of KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga and Limpopo. ¢ Citrus fruit such as oranges and grapefruit are important in the Western Cape, Eastern Cape and Limpopo. ¢ Deciduous fruits such as apples, peaches and grapes are grown all over the country but mainly in the Western Cape. 3.5 Animal products Poultry, mainly chickens, is our largest single agricultural product. They are reared near all the main towns. Sheep, for wool and mutton, are kept in the drier, western half of the country. Beef cattle are ranched in the better-watered eastern parts of South Africa. Dairy cattle are reared near the main urban centres. 3.6 Import and export of agricultural products Table 17 shows our main agricultural imports and exports. Table 17 South African imports and exports of agricultural products - 2011 Exports Imports Citrus fruit — R7 coo million Wheat — Rg 300 million Maize — R6 000 million Rice — R3 700 million Wine —- Rs 500 million Palm oil—R3 000 million Grapes — R3 400 million Poultry meat — R2 700 million Apples — R3 000 million Soya bean oil— R2700 million Total exports R50 000 million Total imports R45 000 million © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 136

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa 4 What are the factors that favour and hinder agriculture in South Africa? 4.1 Favourable factors ¢ Climate: South Africa has a range of climates making it possible for many different crops to be grown. ¢ Trade: Trade with other countries has benefited our farmers. ¢ Tradition: There has been a long tradition of agriculture in South Africa and some of our farmers are amongst the best in the world. e Land ownership: Most of our commercial farmers own their land, which makes it easy for them to get agricultural development. 4.2 Hindering factors ¢ Climate: Three-quarters of South Africa has below 500 mm of rainfall annually. This is the minimum for successful crop growing. ¢ Soils: Many of South Africa’s soils are infertile and large parts of the country are too steep for crop growing. South Africa has one of the worst soil erosion problems in the world. e Trade: Many countries including USA, China and European Union countries subsidise production of their farm products making it too expensive to sell food to these countries. e Land ownership: Apartheid laws meant that black people were not allowed to own farms in most of the productive areas. This is only slowly being reversed. 5 The importance of food security in South Africa Food security exists when all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life. Access to food is vital since it is essential to well-being and human development. 5.1 Factors influencing food security ¢ Droughts and floods: Adverse weather raises the price of food in the shops for all consumers, but the poor, at or below the poverty line, are the most affected. ¢ Economic problems: South Africa has struggled to create job opportunities to allow people to live above the poverty line. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 137

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa ¢ Mismanagement and poor governance: Money that should go towards job creation and agricultural development often has been stolen by corrupt people. e HIV and Aids: This is of concern because of the negative effects on the people involved in agricultural production. ¢ Poverty: People without money cannot buy food. Population growth: More people means less land to grow food on and existing land is over-utilised. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 138

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa Unit 3 Mining 1 What is the contribution of mining to the South African economy? South Africa is the world’s biggest producer of platinum, and one of the leading producers of gold, diamonds, base metals and coal. South Africa holds the world’s largest natural reserves of gold, platinum-group metals (or pgms), chrome and manganese, and the second-largest reserves of zirconium, vanadium and titanium. Even though the relative contribution of mining to South Africa’s gross domestic product has declined over the past 20 years mining remains a cornerstone of the economy. This can be seen in Figure 74. % 20 > % contribution to the GDP e 15 = - ™S 10 Ms a = 5 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 Figure 74 The percentage contribution of mining to the GDP 1941-2011 © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 139

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa 2 What is the significance of mining to the development of South Africa? Exports - 2011 value of mining exports was Cities - Cities have over R224, billion, over developed in the about <Ebo poomeeple Gay ol Sanh Aca 'S mining bi ag work on the mines. With 8 or acta bicep AL Gauteng and Free 10 dependants each, about 4 0r5 million people depended on their R75 billion wages in 2011. State. Eskom and Sasol - Coal generates over 90% of South Africa’s =< electricity. Sasol produces 30% of our liquid fuels such as petrol. Much Manufacturing Que of our plastic is made from coal. minerals provide the raw materials for the important manufacturing industry. Many factories provide equipment for the mines, Technology - Deep mining is a difficult and dangerous job. Advanced technology has been developed in South Africa to minimise these risks. Infrastructure - The income from mining Taxes - The has funded the development of South mines pay large Africa’s infrastructure such as roads, amounts of tax, railways and harbours. Ports at Richards Bay (coal) and Saldanha Bay (iron ore) were built especially to handle mineral exports. which helps the development of the country. Figure 75 Mining has contributed hugely to the growth of South Africa and remains a very important contributor to employment and the economy. 3 What are the factors that favour and hinder mining in South Africa? 3.1 Factors favouring mining ¢ Power: The discovery of coal in Mpumalanga near the gold fields made cheap electricity available for the nearby mines. ¢ Labour: There are many unskilled and semi-skilled workers in South Africa. ¢ Technology: South African mines are some of the most technologically advanced in the world. e Raw materials: South Africa has a wide range of minerals and is the world’s leading producer of platinum, chrome and manganese. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 140

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa Infrastructure: An advanced network of roads, railways and harbours services the mines. Government: The government has always encouraged mining and is now assisting small-scale independent and previously disadvantaged miners. Markets: There are ready markets for our minerals both in South Africa and overseas. 3.2 Factors hindering mining Distances: Many of our minerals are found far from the coast. Dependence on foreign markets: 85% of our minerals are exported and thus we are dependent on foreign governments and companies for sales. Water: Water is a problem in a number of ways. Underground water is expensive to remove. The mines use a lot of water in the mining operation and in processing. Acid mine drainage: This is the flow of polluted water from old mining areas. Pollution: Apart from the pollution of water, mines often pollute the environment with dust and visually in the form of mine dumps. Climate: Some mining areas, such as those in the Northern Cape have very hot climates, making life uncomfortable. Fluctuating market prices: With recent low prices some mines have had to close. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 141

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa Unit 4 Secondary and tertiary sectors 1 What is the contribution of the secondary and tertiary sectors to the South African economy? Since the early 1990s the country’s economic growth has been driven mainly by the tertiary sector. In this period the tertiary sector’s share of the GDP rose from 55% to its present 77% while that of manufacturing dropped from 28% to the present 14%. 2.1 Heavy industry Heavy industry is the large-scale production of goods sold to other industrial customers rather than to the end consumer. Examples of heavy industry include chemicals, steel manufacture, oil refining. 2.2 Light industry Light industry needs less capital than heavy industry. It is produced for the end user rather than for other industries. Examples of light industries include the manufacture of clothes and furniture. 2.3 Raw material oriented industries Raw materials are the materials used to make a finished product. Where the raw materials are bulky or difficult to transport the raw material orientated industries must be located near the source of the raw material. 2.4 Market oriented industries Market orientated industries produce goods that must be produced near the consumer. 2.5 Footloose industries Footloose industries have a free choice of location. 2.6 Ubiquitous industries Ubiquitous industries are not tied to specific sources of raw materials or specific markets. They are located everywhere. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 142

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa 2.7 Bridge industries or break of bulk point industries Bridge industries, also called break of bulk point industries, transfer cargo to smaller units of transport. A bridge industry also occurs when imported raw material can be unloaded directly into the processing plant without further transport costs. 3 What are the factors influencing industrial development in South Africa 3.1 Energy Factories need electricity and some factories have an agreement with ESKOM to buy electricity cheaply. Examples are the aluminium refineries in Richards Bay, each of which uses as much electricity as a large city. 3.2 Raw materials South Africa has large quantities of primary industrial raw materials (like iron, coal, chrome, manganese, copper) while agriculture, forestry and fishing provide other important raw materials. 3.3 Labour supply Labour supply is necessary for industry. Industries producing specialised goods tend to be located where skilled labour is concentrated. 3.4 Transport infrastructure An efficient transport infrastructure is necessary for bringing in raw materials and distributing manufactured products. South Africa has a good network of roads, harbours and railways to support industry. 3.5 Political intervention Political intervention in the form of government decisions has a major impact on factory location. The introduction of Industrial Development Zones (IDZs) and Spatial Development Initiatives (SDIs) has encouraged industries to develop in certain areas. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 143

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa 3.6 Competition and trade Compared with the large markets of Europe and Asia, South African markets are small. The competition from firms in these areas, especially China means items such shoes and clothing can be sold at a lower price than they cost to make in South Africa. 4 South Africa’s industrial regions SOS ae | Port Elizabeth-Uitenhage | eT South-western Cape Durban—Pinetown 4o-—— Figure 76 Percentage of industrial output of the main industrial regions of South Africa. The remaining 20% is located in other cities and towns of South Africa. 4.1 Manufacturing in Gauteng The area extending from Pretoria to Sasolburg and from Brakpan to Randfontein, also known as the PWV, is Africa’s most important industrial region. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 144

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa TS ee i S$ \, A. oe Mamelodi ~ . Ly NORTH WEST eG L —an Mas © Centurion prorhortsph Midrand Oy / Krugersdorp, @ Kempton ply Johannesburg Boron l Randfontein” || . eh ee Soweto® A Germiston a Carlstonville Alberton aes a a Heidelberg \ Meyerton » e rh een ? fanderbijlpark@ — @ Vereeniging gO oar Fea aneR Ya @ Sasolburg ae i iA ) |. / \ FREE STATE =: y Sa Figure 77 The PWV in Gauteng is Africa’s most important industrial area. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 145

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa 4.1.1 The factors influencing the location of industry Raw materials: Gold provided the initial stimulus for development of industry and industries arose to provide the mines with mining equipment. Other minerals and agricultural products all stimulate industrial growth. Labour supply: With jobs available in the manufacturing sector people from all over the world came to the area. Markets: Gauteng has the highest per capita GDP in South Africa and provides a large market for industrial products. Power: The huge power stations of Mpumalanga are close by. Transport: Gauteng is very well-served with road, rail and air links. The big disadvantage is that it has no port. Political intervention: The Gauteng Economic Development Agency (GEDA) has been developed by the Gauteng government to promote economic growth and development. 4.1.2 Factors limiting industrial expansion The lack ofa harbour has meant ; ‘ 1 aan eaen Factors limiting industries are seeking industrial port locations to reduce expansion transport costs. Roads in the area are reaching congestion and expensive highways have to be built. Figure 78 Factors limiting industrial expansion in Gauteng © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 146

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa 4.1.3 Main industrial activities Gauteng is the main centre of South Africa’s industrial activity. The region produces a wide range of products such as iron and steel, metal products, food, machinery, electrical appliances, vehicle parts and accessories and chemicals. 4.2 Manufacturing in the Durban—Pinetown area This area is the second most important industrial area in South Africa. 4.2.1 The factors influencing the location of industry Durban’s harbour is the busiest in the country. The population of greater Durban is over 3,5 million which supplies labour and markets. With its high rainfall the area has many agricultural raw materials, especially sugar and timber. Apart from the port, the area is well-served by road, rail and air. 4.2.2 Main industrial activities Durban has a wide range of industries. Because of its harbour location many are break of bulk. Food processing is one of the oldest industries. Sugar refining and timber processing are also important. The Toyota motor assembly plant employs 8 000 people and produces over 200 000 vehicles per year. 4.3 Manufacturing in the South-western Cape The southern part of Western Cape is South Africa’s oldest industrial area and produces a wide variety of goods, especially food products and textiles. 4.3.1 The factors influencing the location of industry Cape Town was the first European-style city in South Africa and industry grew to meet the demands of its inhabitants. These industries have remained there even though other factors suggest that for some of them a new location would he beneficial. This reluctance to move is due to industrial inertia. The region has over 3,5 million inhabitants and their skill levels are among the highest in South Africa 4.3.2 Main industrial activities e Fruit is processed into canned fruit, fruit juices and wines in Cape Town and the surrounding small towns. e The largest manufacturing industry in the province is the clothing and textile industry. This is presently declining in importance, due to competition from cheaper Eastern producers, such as China and Vietnam. ¢ The cold waters of the Benguela current provide food for the abundance of fish in © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 147

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa the sea around the Western Cape. The fish are canned and packed in Cape Town and in the many small towns along the Western Cape coast. e High-tech industries are growing in importance and are taking the place of the declining textile and clothing industry. ¢ Iron and steel are important products. Saldanha Bay, 100 km north of Cape Town, is the terminus of the railway line that carries iron and manganese from Sishen in Northern Cape. A steel manufacturing plant has been built at Saldanha Bay. 4.4 Manufacturing in the Port Elizabeth-Uitenhage area This is the smallest of South Africa’s main industrial regions, with 8% of South Africa’s industrial output. It is known for the production of motor vehicles and the associated industries. 4.4.1 The factors influencing the location of industry The port location has been the main attraction for industries in this area. The new deep water port at Coega, 20 km north of Port Elizabeth, will encourage further development in the area. The area has many agricultural raw materials. 4.4.2 Factors limiting industrial expansion The supply of water is a problem and additional water is obtained from the Orange River via the Orange—Fish-Sundays link tunnels and canals. The lack of minerals in the hinterland is another limiting factor. 4.4.3 Main industrial activities Textiles and leather goods: These are made using leather from the cattle and wool from the sheep in the hinterland. Motor vehicles: General Motors and Ford started assembling motor cars at Port Elizabeth nearly 90 years ago. Volkswagen built an assembly plant at Uitenhage in 1947. The area was chosen for its centrally located port so the finished vehicles made from imported parts could be sent easily to the rest of the country. Most other industries in the area provide accessories such as tyres, batteries and windscreens. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 148

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa Unit 5 Strategies for industrial development 1 Apartheid and post-apartheid industrial development strategies 1,1 Apartheid strategy — border industries The policy of apartheid meant that South Africa was to be a ‘white’ republic in which black people did not feature as citizens. This ‘bantustan’ policy sought to place all black Africans in a ‘homeland’ according to their ethnic identity. Ten homelands were created (Figure 79). (9 Bophuthaswana ZIMBABWE Ciskei a = (99 Gazankulu = KeNgwane BOTSWANA g 1 Kwandebele FS 9 KwaZulu 2 MBE Lebowa = EB Qwaqwa a ll Transkei Fé MB Venda { Transvaal L SWAZILAN NAMIBIA é Orange | i Free State } % Py r \ t “Natal \ LEsoTHo ee N Cape Province aan \ a a ’ in —_ = — Figure 79 The former ‘homelands’ in South Africa. Note the different provinces. These homelands had very few job opportunities and the concept of border industries was introduced. Incentives were offered in order to encourage industrialists to invest in growth points which bordered the homelands. These incentives included tax concessions, labour concessions, transport subsidies and tariff protection. The aim of all these measures was clear: to halt, or even reverse the flow of black Africans to the ‘white’ areas. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 149

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa 1,2 Post-apartheid industrial development strategies There have been a number of strategies aimed at economic, political and social development through post-apartheid industrial development. The aim is to develop less developed areas. The main industrial initiatives are the Spatial Development Initiatives (SDIs) and Industrial Development Zones (IDZs). 1.2.1 Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR) GEAR was a large scale strategy aimed at creating a fast-growing economy and sufficient jobs. 1.2.2 Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) In the years before democracy in 1994, the apartheid government excluded black people from meaningful participation in the economy. BEE was introduced to rectify the wrongs of the past while helping to bring the black majority into the economy. 1.2.3 Accelerated and Shared Growth in South Africa (Asgi-SA) Asgi-SA was introduced to achieve economic growth and to halve poverty and unemployment by 2014. 2 What are Industrial Development Zones (IDZs)? An Industrial Development Zone (or IDZ) is an industrial estate linked to an international sea or air port that encourages export oriented manufacturing industries. They aim to promote the manufacturing sector and to encourage beneficiation of local resources. 3 What are Spatial Development Initiatives (SDIs)? A Spatial Development Initiative (or SDI) aims to promote growth in those parts of South Africa that are underdeveloped but have potential for growth. The most successful SDI has been the Maputo Corridor. This is a major trade corridor connecting Gauteng and Mpumalanga with Maputo in Mozambique. One hundred and thirty investment opportunities have been identified in the infrastructure, agriculture, mining, energy, chemicals, tourism and manufacturing sectors. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 150

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa 4 What are the issues associated with industrial centralisation and decentralisation 4.1 Centralisation If an industry is successful in an area its success will attract other forms of economic development and create jobs, services and wealth leading to the centralisation of industry in a few areas. The advantages of centralisation are that factories use the same physical infrastructure such as power, water and transport. Skilled labour, markets and financial services are all in the same area. This can lead to problems, as shown in Figure 80. This causes an unequal distribution of wealth, activities and people. Reasons for the concern about the degree of centralisation Industrial expansion in Gauteng has placed pressure on Vaal water supplies and water has to be imported at a cost. Figure 80 Reasons for concern about centralisation © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 151

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa Unit 6 The informal sector 1 The concept and characteristics of informal sector employment 1.1 What is the concept of the informal sector? The informal sector refers to that part of an economy that is not taxed and is out of official government records. Workers have no employment contracts and do not belong to trade unions. 1,2 What are the characteristics of the informal sector? The characteristics of the informal sector are summarised in Figure 81. Mostly informal jobs in trade, ; Self- building or No fringe employed, domestic service benefits such as pension or often small family medical aid concerns based on little capital Little job security Irregular hours and uncertain wages Absence of trade Cheap raw unions materials so often the quality of the goods is low Mainly self- Lack official employed protection and recognition Figure 81 The characteristics of the informal sector © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 152

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa 2 What are the reasons for high informal sector employment in South Africa? The number of people involved in the informal sector is estimated to be about 3 million out of a labour force of about 13 million and growing at about 8% per year. This is large in a country like South Africa with a well-established economy. e Under apartheid black people were denied entry to much of the economy except as unskilled or semi-skilled labourers. Many were unable to obtain a decent education. ¢ With high unemployment more people have to obtain work in the informal sector in order to survive. As unemployment increases so does the informal sector. ¢ Many of South Africa’s informal sector jobs are carried by non-South Africans, especially Zimbabweans, as they are often denied access to formal employment. 3 What are the challenges facing South Africa’s informal sector? ¢ Traders do not have access to proper trading facilities. ¢ Traders and their goods are exposed to the weather. e Traders are frequently harassed by local authorities. ¢ Banks do not like to give loans to informal traders. ¢ The sector is unpredictable and the income unreliable. ¢ There is little time or incentive to improve their education or training. ¢ Many have HIV/Aids and as the illness gets worse work becomes increasingly difficult. © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 153

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa Questions Question1 | True or False. State if each of the following statements is true or false. If it is false rewrite the statement correctly. 11 Mining iron is a secondary economic activity. 1.2 Banking is part of the tertiary sector. 1.3 The gross domestic product measure the employment structure of a country. 1.4 Acountry with a large percentage of its labour force engaged in agriculture is the sign of a developed country. 1.5 In 2010 South Africa grew more food than it did in 1980. 1.6 In 2010 fewer people were engaged in agriculture that in 1980. 1.7 South Africa imports more food than it exports. 1.8 Small-scale farming cannot be commercial farming. 1.9 The inputs on a commercial farm include machinery and paid labour. 1.10 Wheat grown in South Africa is an important export crop. 1.11 Free State is an important producer of wheat, maize and sugar. 1.12 Maize is an important commercial and subsistence crop. 1.13 Fruit is South Africa’s largest export agricultural product. 1.14 Food security exists ‘when all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life’. 1.15 The discovery of gold and platinum in the 1890s led to the early development of South Africa’s industry. 1.16 Most of South Africa’s electricity is generated in Gauteng. 1.17 Footloose industries manufacture most of South Africa’s shoes. 1.18 Spatial Development Zones were established to develop economic activity in underutilised areas with economic potential. 1.19 Maputo is the closest harbour to the Gauteng industrial region. 1.20 Nuclear power is generated at a power station in Western Cape. 20x2=(40) © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 154

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa Question 2 2.1 Refer to Figure 1 which shows an example of economic activities linked to the informal sector. Figure 1 2.1.1 Explain why the activities in Figure 1 are classified as being part of the informal sector. 2x2=(4) 2.1.2 Give four characteristics of labour in the informal sector. 4x2=(8) 2.1.3. Give three problems that informal traders like those in Figure 1 experience. 3x2=(6) 2.2. Informal economic activities make no direct contribution to the Gross Domestic Product of a country. 2.2.1. What is meant by the term GDP? 1x2=(2) 2.2.2 Explain why the statement in 1.6 in question 1 above is true. 2x2=(4) 2.3. Give two advantages of the informal sector for a country’s economic development. 2x2=(4) 2.4 Give two disadvantages of the informal sector for a country’s economic development. 2x2=(4) (32) © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 155

TOPIC 4 Economic geography of South Africa Question 3 a Study Table 1 below and then answer the questions that follow. 3.2 3.3 3-4 Table 1 The contributions made by some sectors of the economy to the GDP - 2011 Agriculture, forestry and fishing 3% Mining and quarrying 7% Manufacturing 19% Electricity 2% Finance, real estate, business services 22% Construction 3% Internet 2% Wholesale and retail trade 13% Social and personal services 20% Transport 9% Which of the four economic sectors contributed most to South Africa’s GDP? 1x2=(2) State the contribution made by the primary sector to the GDP. 1x2=(2) Classify the following economic sectors from the table as primary, secondary, tertiary or quaternary: 3.3.1 Social and personal services 3.3.2. Manufacturing 3.3.3 Internet 3x2=(6) Manufacturing makes up 19% of South Africa’s GDP and nearly half this is in Gauteng. 3.4.1 Examine three factors favouring manufacturing in Gauteng. 3x4=(12) 3.4.2 Describe three environmental and social problems resulting from the centralisation of manufacturing in Gauteng. 3x4=(12) (34) TOTAL MARKS [106] © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 156

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Exam Papers Final Exam Paper 1 TIME 3 HOURS ANSWER ANY THREE QUESTIONS SECTION A: PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY QUESTION 1 1d Match the columns so the description in the left column matches the concept in the right column. 1.1.1 | Causes mid-latitude cyclones to move from west to east A_ | Trough 1.1.2 Surface of contact between the cold air and the warm westerlies | B Aspect 1.1.3. | An elongated low pressure cell C_ | Rejuvenation 1.1.4 Refers to the direction in which a slope faces in relation to the D Polar front Sun’s rays 1.1.5 | A type of erosion which occurs at the source of a stream E Headward erosion 1.1.6 | A break in the slope of a river F Knickpoint 1.1.7. | Ariver has extra erosive power G Antecedent drainage 1.1.8 | Can cause severe flooding H Westerlies ] Tropical cyclone 7*2=(14) 1.2 Study the synoptic map below and answer the following questions. 1.2.1. Name the high pressure systems A and B. 2x2=(4) 1.2.2 Identify the climatic feature with low pressure at C. (2) 1.2.3 Name the line marked F and state its pressure in hPa. 2x2=(4) 1.2.4 In which pressure system is the highest pressure on the map? (1) 1.2.5 What season does this synoptic weather map represent? (2) 1.2.6 Give three reasons for your answer based on evidence visible on the synoptic weather map. 3x2=(6) © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 159

Exam Papers 43 © Bloomin 55 a aidn MN 1.2.7. Refer to the station model of Port Elizabeth below and name the type of wind (not direction) that has resulted in the conditions as indicated by the station model. (2) 30 -3 1.2.8 Account for the atmospheric conditions being experienced in Port Elizabeth. 4x2=(8) (29) 1.3 Geomorphology — Fluvial processes 1.3.1 Explain the difference between the terms abstraction and headward erosion. 2x2=(4) 1.3.2 Abstraction and headward erosion can lead to river capture. Explain what is meant by the term river capture. 2x2=(4) © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 160

Exam Papers = Sis SQ >S>>S5 5 5° 13) Provide labels for the characteristic features A to E shown on map Y in the diagram above. §x2=(10) 1.3.4 Describe the steps in the process that led to the landscape in map Y. 3x2=(6) 1.3.5 Explain why River B in map Y has been rejuvenated. 1x2=(2) 1.3.6 List two landforms that could result from this rejuvenation. 2x2=(4) (Go) (75) QUESTION 2 2.1 Multiple choice. Indicate the best answer for each of the following questions. Table 1 below shows temperatures on two consecutive July days at 06:00 on a farm in the Drakensberg mountains of KwaZulu-Natal. Table 1 Temperatures on two consecutive July days at 06:00 ona farm in the Drakensberg Temperatures Height First day Second day Place X 800m 5 °C -6 °C Place Y 1400m “1 9C 1c © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 161

Exam Papers 244 In Table 1 the weather responsible for causing the differences in temperature is likely to occur when ... A moon anabatic winds are blowing the winter is warm there is a cloud barrier at 1300 m a cold front is situated over the area the nights are clear and cold 2.1.2 In Table 1 the most likely answer for the lower temperatures at X is... A B c D Y has a sunny aspect while X has a north facing slope X has snow while Y has not the air at X is drier than that at Y during the night there has been rapid terrestrial radiation and cold air has dropped down the valley sides Band D 2.1.3. Which statementis correct about an urban heat island during the day? A B due to general subsidence the horizontal component increases due to a decrease in stability and an increase in turbulence the vertical dimension of the heat island decreases due to an increase in stability and an decrease in turbulence the vertical dimension of the heat island increases due to a decrease in stability and an increase in turbulence the vertical dimension of the heat island increases none of these 2.1.4 Ifall other factors remain constant except the stream becomes ... at some point, the water will speed up. A mooaow shallower narrower sandier BandC AandB 2.1.5 Braided streams occur where the channel floor is ... A mooaow very deep very narrow very wide very flat very flat and wide 2.1.6 Which of the following features would you NOT find in the lower stage of a river? A moaow flood plain interlocking spurs levees estuaries rapids © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 162

Exam Papers 2.1.7 Aconfluence is ... A where a river starts a branch of a main river where the river flows into the sea the point where two rivers join the high ground between two rivers moon 2.1.8 The headwaters of a stream are always located ... A at the terminus of the stream where it enters another body of water B at the midpoint of the longitudinal profile of the stream Cc at the source of the stream D at the mouth of the stream E at the stream’s base level 8x2=(16) 2.2 South Africa’s weather. Study the synoptic weather map of 25 January 2012 below and answer the questions that follow. Windhoek | L ah, a7 : Gaborone !/_< 31/7 0 10 Synoptic weather map of 25 January 2012 © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 163

Exam Papers 2.2.1 What is the name given to the climatic system called Funso? (a) 2.2.2 State four conditions necessary for systems like Funso to form. 4x2=(8) 2.2.3. Drawa fully labelled cross-section through Funso to show clouds and air movements. 4x2=(8) 2.2.4 Including Funso, how many of these climatic systems have there been in this area this season. 1x2=(2) 2.2.5 Systems like Funso are given different names in different parts of the world. State what they called in (a) the USA and (b) Japan. 2x2=(4) 2.2.6 State three reasons why this synoptic map shows a summer condition. 3x2=(6) (29) 2.3 Geomorphology — Fluvial processes 2.3.1. What is meant by the term graded river? 1x2=(2) 2.3.2 With the aid of well-labelled diagrams describe the difference between a graded river and an ungraded river. 6«2=(12) 2.3.3 What is meant by the term rejuvenation? 1x2=(2) 2.3.4 List four causes of rejuvenation. 4x2=(8) 2.3.5 List three landforms caused by rejuvenation. 3x2=(6) (Go) [75] SECTION B: HUMAN GEOGRAPHY QUESTION 3 3.1 Multiple choice. Mark the best answers to the questions below. 3.11 In rural areas the failure of industrialisation and the modernisation of agricultural practices has led to... A voluntary resettlement B rural-urban migration Cc basic need philosophy D formal resettlement E push-pull factors © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 164

3.1.2 3.1.3 314 3.1.6 3.1.7 Exam Papers What are the advantages of nucleated rural settlement? A economic B political c can make farming easier D social E all of these Which of these statements is true? A The development of new shopping centres has occurred mainly in the CBD. B The development of new industry has been in the rural-urban fringe. Cc The development of new industry has been in the CBD. D The development of new industry has been away from major transport links. Which of the four classifications of industry must be located where the resources are found? A secondary B tertiary Cc primary D quaternary Even if the Gross Domestic Product index is used to measure the well-being of a country, it will fail to show ... A growth in secondary industries B variations within countries Cc growth within tertiary industries D growth within primary industries Arable land is ... A used for growing crops used for raising sheep and/or cattle not suitable for farming unsuitable for irrigation both A and B mooaow South Africa’s mineral reserves can be extended by... A conserving use of materials B substituting other materials that accomplish the same thing Cc recycling materials D all of these A factor limiting the development of industry in the Cape Town area is ... A the cold Benguela current B the agricultural raw materials Cc the lack of flat ground D the unskilled labour E the long distance to the big markets in Gauteng 8x2=(16) © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 165

Exam Papers 3.2 Settlement. Study the photograph below showing a rural settlement in KwaZulu-Natal and answer the questions that follow. 3.2.1 State why this settlement is classified as a nucleated rural settlement. 2x2=(4) 3.2.2. Many of the young men in this area have moved to the cities of Pietermaritzburg and Durban. a State the name of this movement. 1x1=(1) b Describe three push factors that might have caused the young men to move.3x2=(6) c Describe three barriers the young men might have met in their move to the city.3«2=(6) 3.2.3. There are advantages and disadvantages of living in a nucleated rural settlement. a Describe three social advantages. 3x2=(6) b Describe three economic disadvantages of this settlement type. 3x2=(6) (29) © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 166

Exam Papers 33 Economic geography of South Africa. Study Table 2 below and then answer the questions that follow. Table 2 The contributions made by some sectors of the economy to the GDP — 2011 Agriculture, forestry and fishing 3% Mining and quarrying 7% Manufacturing 19% Electricity 2% Finance, real estate, business services 22% Construction 3% Internet 2% Wholesale and retail trade 13% Social and personal services 20% Transport 9% 3.3.1 Which of the four economic sectors contributed most to South Africa’s GDP? 1x2=(2) 3.3.2 State the contribution made by the primary sector to the GDP. 1x2=(2) 3.3.3 Classify the following economic sectors from the table as primary, secondary, tertiary or quaternary: a social and personal services b manufacturing c Internet. 3x2=(6) 3.3.4 Manufacturing makes up 19% of South Africa’s GDP and nearly half this is in Gauteng. Examine two factors favouring manufacturing in Gauteng. 2x4=(8) 3.3.5 Describe three environmental and social problems resulting from the centralisation of manufacturing in Gauteng. 3x4=(12) (30) 75] © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 167

QUESTION 4 4a Exam Papers Matching columns. Match the concept with the correct description. 4d Hierarchy of settlements The reduction in unit cost resulting from large scale production 4.1.2 | Ribbon development Light industries which have few basic requirements 4.1.3. | Urban decay The minimum number of people in a region required to support a particular shop or service 4.1.4 | Threshold population The area around a shop, settlement or central place which is affected by the goods and services on offer 4.1.5 | Sphere of influence Low order 4.1.6 | Economies of scale Asystem of grading the various types of settlement according to size 4.1.7. | Footloose industries Deterioration especially of the older parts of the town 4.1.8 | Convenience goods Urban expansion along roads 8x2=(16) 4.2 Settlement geography. State whether the following are TRUE or FALSE. Write only T or F next to the number. 4.2.1 Cities attract mainly old people. 4.2.2. Urban sprawl occurs when there are no laws to control what and where people can build. 4.2.3. Construction of ‘park and ride’ facilities on the fringe of the CBD can help to combat traffic congestion. 4.2.4 Overcrowding is not a problem for most urban areas. 4.2.5 Urbanisation is the result of population migration from rural areas to urban areas. 2x§=(10) 43 Remote rural areas and inner cities. Write an essay of approximately ONE page in which you evaluate the validity of this statement. ‘There are distinct similarities between remote rural areas and inner cities.’ 10*2=(20) © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 168

Exam Papers 4.4 The economic geography of South Africa. Refer to the photographs below, which show examples of economic activities linked to the informal sector and answer the questions that follow. AAA 44.2 443 AA 445 4.4.6 4.4.7 ad SF .. ms Explain why the activities illustrated are classified as being part of the informal sector. 2x2=(4) Give four characteristics of labour in the informal sector. 4x2=(8) Give two problems that informal traders experience. 2x2=(4) Informal economic activities make no direct contribution to the Gross Domestic Product of a country. What is meant by the term GDP? 1x1=(1) Explain why the statement in 4.4.4 is true. 2x2=(4) Give two advantages of the informal sector for a country’s economic development.2x2=(4) Give two disadvantages of the informal sector for a country’s economic development.2x2=(4) (29) [75] © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 169

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2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 Exam Papers A graded river is in a state of equilibrium and neither erodes nor deposits.“ — 1x2=(2) OS derers slau ‘smooth concave profile decreasing in angle and gradient towards the mouth Three valid points for each diagram. 3x2x2=(12) 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5 QUESTION 3 3 3.11 3.1.2 3.1.3 314 3.1.5 3.1.6 3.1.7 3.1.8 River rejuvenation takes place when there is an increase of a river's speed and erosive power. ¥¥ 1x2=(2) Four of: a worldwide lowering of sea level; raising of the land through forces in the Earth’s crust; a significant increase in rainfall; a rapidly fl owing tributary that joins the main stream; river capture (stream piracy) where the increased volume of water enlarges the erosion capacity of the stream. 4x2=(8) Knickpoints, VY terraces, YY incised meanders. VY 3x2=(6) (30) (75) BYY EVY BYY Cvv BYY AVY DYY EVY 8x2=(16) © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Sludy Guide eBook 172

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443 Aho 4.4.5 4.4.6 447 Exam Papers work become increasingly difficult; unsafe and unhealthy working conditions; not a member ofa trade union. Y¥ V¥ VV VV 4x2=(8) Two of: exposed to the weather; subject to xenophobia; goods confiscated by authorities; theft; against the law; unprotected. VY” VV 2x2=(4) The total value of a country’s output in a year ¥ (1) Informal traders are in the formal sector, no records of their sales are kept and so they pay no tax YY, and are not incorporated into the GDP. VV (4) Two of: provides a living for many people; even though they pay no tax they money they earn circulated through the economy; the money they earn is spent on goods and services. V¥ VV 2x2=(4} Two of: do not contribute to the tax base; take business away from formal traders who do pay tax; do not buy property.V¥” VY 2x2=(4} (29) [75] © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 175

Exam Papers Final Exam Paper 2 TIME 11/2 HOURS ANSWER ALL THE QUESTIONS Study the topographic map and orthophoto of 2528DA Cullinan on pages 316 and 317 in the Learner’s Book and answer the questions that follow. 1 Multiple choice questions. Mark the best answer to the questions below. 1 The latitude of spot height 1432 (A4) is ... A 28° 33' 15" E B 25° 37'25"E c 25° 37'25"S D 28° 33'15"S E 25° 38' 35" E 1.2 The longitude of spot height 1408 (Bz) is... A 28° 31' 28"S B 25° 38' 55" E c 25° 39' 05" E D 28° 33'15"S E None of these 1.3 The land use south-west of the large dam (C1) is ... A agricultural B residential c recreational D mining E AandD 1.4 The land use at the point marked 1 on the orthophoto is... A mining B farming Cc industry D recreation E none of these 15 The contour interval represents the... A accuracy of the surveying work B horizontal spacing between the contour lines c number of contour lines on a map D vertical spacing between contour lines © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 176

Exam Papers E none of these 1.6 The natural resources in the area covered by the topographic map include ... A minerals B agricultural products c surface water D AandB E A, Band C 7 The town of Cullinan is in ... A Limpopo B KwaZulu-Natal c Free State D Eastern Cape E none of these 7*2=(14) 1.8 The cultivation of fruit is an important activity at the farm called Tweefontein (A1). A true B false (1) (15) 2 Calculations 2a A hiker walks in a straight line from the trigonometrical station numbered §3(C2) to spot height 1459 in C3 to. 2.4.1 Calculate the length of the walk. 1x2=(2) 2.1.2 What is the true bearing of the walk? 1x2=(2) 2.1.3. Calculate the gradient of the walk. Show all your working. 3x2=(6) 2.1.4 This gradient is classified as: Agentle B moderate Csteep D very steep (2) 2.2 A motorist drives from Pretoria along the road numbered §13 to the police station in D2. Calculate the length of the drive. 1x2=(2) 2.3 Calculate the approximate area, in hectares, of the excavation labelled Premier Diamond Mine in D1 And D2. 1 hectare = 10000 mz. 3x2=(6) (20) 3 Analysis and interpretation 3a Agriculture. Study the farm named Doomkraal (A3) and answer the questions that follow. 3.1.1 State, with two reasons, whether you think this farm is a subsistence or a commercial farm. 3x2=(6) 3.1.2 List one likely crop that is grown on this farm. 1x2=(2) © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 177

Exam Papers 3.1.3 Explain the use of the lines of trees on this farm. 1x2=(2) 3.2 Settlement. A developer wishes to build a housing complex in the area for wealthy retired people. The developer is offered three sites: Site 1 is at Louwsbaken between the road and the dam (C3). Site 2 is around spot height 1446 (D1). Site 3 is around spot height 1382 (A1). 3.2.1 Select the site you think is the best and give two reasons why you have chosen this site. 2x2=(4) 3.2.2 Give one disadvantage for each of the other two sites. 2x2=(4) 3.3 List three advantages of the area covered by the topographical map to an industrialist wishing to start a factory manufacturing food products. 3x2=(6) 3.4 State the name of the street pattern in the area called Refilwe (Bz). (a) (25) 4 Geographic information systems 4a Matching columns. Match the descriptions with the concepts. 4d Preparing data according to specific GIS norms and A_ | Data integration standards as to make it available to a variety of users 4.1.2 Protection of data in a GIS for commercial, personal or | B | Data security national security reasons 4.1.3 Integration and exchange of data between various C | Data sharing organisations in order to make better decisions 41.4 Combining data from different maps into one map D | Data standardisation which summarises the overlaying process E Data representation 4x2=(8) 4.2 Classify the topographic map either as a raster or vector data structure (1) 43 From block C2 identify ONE example of a line, point and area geographical feature.3«1=(3) 4.4 Classify each of your examples in question 4.3 as a node, arc or polygon feature. 3x1=(3) (as) (75) © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 178

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Exam Papers 4 gaa CY 412 BYY 413 AVY 414 DVYY 4x2=(8) 4.2 Vector (a) 43 Point: trigonometrical beacon, houses, single trees (any one) ” (1) Line: other roads, contours (any one) ¥ @Q Area: dam, residential area, golf course (any one) “ (a) 4.4 Any point feature — node ¥ (a) Any line feature — arc ¥ (1) Any area feature — polygon ¥ (1) (15) (75] © Via Afrika Publishers >> Geography 12 Study Guide eBook 180

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