N5 Educational Psychology

Educational Psychology Downloaded from hlayiso.com N5

Module 1: Social and moral theories and personality development SOCIALISATION Socialisation refers to the process whereby the individual learns to conform to the moral standards, role expectations and standards of acceptable behaviour currently acceptable in his society. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 1: Social and moral theories and personality development (continued) EXTERNAL FACTORS (AGENT OF SOCIALISATION) The child’s behaviour is directly and indirectly guided by the various socialisation agents, e.g. people, organisations and the mass media, through the transmission of their values, norms and traditions to the child. Direct influence is exercised particularly by the parents and the family, but as the child gets older, his peers and the ECD centre play an increasingly important role. The mass media, particularly television, also exert a strong influence. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 1: Social and moral theories and personality development (continued) DAY-CARE CENTRES (ECD CENTRE) AND PRE-PRIMARY SCHOOL The pre-primary school, or ECD centre, is one of the most important socialisation agent. In the pre-primary school particularly, the child learns: • Which skills and attitudes are acceptable in society, and • What his cultural heritage entails. The pre-schooler learns what is expected of him as a member of a grade and even as a citizen. The pre-primary teacher comments on the child’s conduct, praises what is acceptable Downloaded and criticises from whatever is unacceptable. hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 1: Social and moral theories and personality development (continued) THE ROLE OF BOOKS Children’s books play an important role in the process of sex role socialisation and influence children’s views of themselves as male or female. Books help to define the following: • Acceptable and unacceptable behaviour for females and males; • The different options that are available in society; and • To which sex are these options available. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 1: Social and moral theories and personality development (continued) INTERNAL FACTORS Temperament refers to: • A typical style of emotional response; • Sensitivity to emotional arousal; • How quickly and strong emotions are aroused; and • The quality of their normal mood. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 1: Social and moral theories and personality development (continued) PSYCHO-SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: ERIKSON Psychosocial development is how a person’s mind, emotions and maturity level develop throughout the course of your lifetime. Different people will develop at a different rate depending on biological processes and environmental interactions. Erikson identifies eight psycho-social development phases that cover the entire life cycle. Each development phase is characterised by a developmental crisis caused by the interaction between epigenetic development and Downloaded socialhlayiso.com from influences. www.futuremanagers.com

Module 1: Social and moral theories and personality development (continued) ERIKSON’S STAGES 1. Baby: 0-2 years: Trust versus Distrust (Synthesis: hope). 2. Infant: 2-3 years: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (Synthesis: willpower). 3. 3-6 years: Initiative versus Guilt: (Synthesis: purpose). Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 1: Social and moral theories and personality development (continued) KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT Stage 1: Pre-conventional morality (5-9 years) • Concern about the self. • The child decides what is wrong on the basis of his punishment. • Therefore, the child obeys rules in order to avoid punishment. • Right and wrong behaviour depends on the type of punishment • involved. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 1: Social and moral theories and personality development (continued) KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT Stage 2: Naïve hedonistic and instrumental orientation (9-15 years) • The child follows rules when it is in his immediate interest. Therefore, the basic motive is the satisfaction of his/her own needs and to receive rewards and pleasant results. • What is good, is what brings results. • Right is also what is fair, what is an equal exchange, a deal and pleasant results. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 1: Social and moral theories and personality development (continued) TEMPERAMENT THEORY OF HIPPOCRATES The four temperaments of Hippocrates: • Earth; • Air; • Fire; and • Water. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 1: Social and moral theories and personality development (continued) PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL THEORY OF FREUD Sigmund Freud established his own school of thought, namely, psycho analysis. Freud classified the sources of conflict within the individual and divide it into three structures, namely, the id, ego and superego. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 1: Social and moral theories and personality development (continued) PERSONALITY EVALUATION Ask yourself the following questions when you want to do an personality assessment: • How would you try and assess someone’s personality? • What factors might influence the validity of such a test? • What use might society make of personality tests? Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 1: Social and moral theories and personality development (continued) FORMAL METHODS Psychoanalytical tests/psychotherapy This is a method of relieving emotional distress through helping people to talk about their problems and express their feelings. Psychotherapists come to know their patients very well, as intimate knowledge is shared. It can be done through projective tests, or direct observation. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 1: Social and moral theories and personality development (continued) INFORMAL METHODS Informal methods of personality evaluation are: • Questionnaires; • Surveys; and • Interviews. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills CONCEPTS Language includes every means of communication in which thoughts and feelings are symbolised so as to convey meaning. It includes different forms of communication, such as writing, speaking, sign language, facial expression, gestures, etc. Speech is a form of language in which articulated (spoken) sounds or words are used to convey meaning. Because it is the most effective form of communication,Downloaded it is the most important from andhlayiso.com are most widely used. www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) STAGES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT Stages of language development Age Nature of development 3-6 months Cooing 6-10 months Babbling 16-18 months One word 18-24 months Two-word strings 2 to 3 years Sentences of three words or more 5 to 11 years Complex sentences with steadily increasing vocabulary 11+ years Abstract meaning of words grasped; more use of adjectives and adverbs; grammar becomes refined Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) BABY AND TODDLER The basic skills of receptive language comprehension are: • Possess auditory perception of speech sounds and sound in general. • Understand words, concrete or abstract. • Understand the syntactic structure of sentences. • Have the ability to carry out verbal instructions. • Eventually have the ability to listen critically and make judgements. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) BABY AND TODDLER Expressive language comprehension: This is what the child says or later writes. The basic skills involved here are that they must: • Gain meaningful experience and be able to retain the meaning of words. • Be able to produce the various speech sounds. • Develop correct grammatical and syntactic patterns in his language. • Develop an adequate verbal vocabulary. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) PRE-LINGUISTIC SPEECH (0 - 1 YEAR) New-born babies have no control over the sounds they make, but nature provides four types of communication for them: • Crying; • Gestures; • Babbling; and • Cooing. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) LINGUISTIC SPEECH (10 - 18 MONTHS) • At about the age of one year, he begins to say meaningful words with the specific aim to communicate. • By the age of about 14 months, the toddler starts using words in the right context. By the age of 15 months, he understands much more. • By the age of 18-24 months, the child progresses to two-word sentences called. His language is self-centred and he uses it mostly to express his own desires. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE ACQUISITION OF LANGUAGE A variety of factors influence the acquisition and development of language: • Environment; • Physical factors; • Education; • Psychological readiness; • Socio-economic status; • Intelligence; • Role model; • Motivation; and • Experience; • Gender. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) ENVIRONMENT A child learns the language that is spoken in his environment, i.e. the language of his parents, family, neighbourhood, region and people. He is familiar with the regional speech (dialect) and accents, the language used in the neighbourhood and the typical expressions and turn to the phrases of his family. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) EDUCATION Some educators are more prescriptive and explain less than others when they communicate with children. If the educator is too prescriptive, the child has little opportunity to show initiative and this has an inhibiting influence on his creativity. The child from a democratic family tends to be talking sooner than the child from an autocratic family. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS Middle socio-economic class parents tend to help and support their children more, which leads to a better and meanings of communication. Mothers from a low socio-economic class communicate with their children in a more prescriptive and commanding manner. As a result, the child from a lower socio-economic class is less creative and shows less initiative, they speak later, show poorer language development, especially concerning vocabulary. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) ROLE MODEL The educator’s example, in respect of pronunciation, must be worth following. The better the model, the better the child’s speech will be. It is the adult’s responsibility to accompany and guide the child in his acquisition of language. The adult should provide ample opportunities for language stimulation, e.g. talking to the child, pronouncing the words clearly and slowly, reading stories, etc. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) EXPERIENCE Experience is one of the most important factors in the acquisition of language and speech. Note that not only are vocabulary and language as media of communication issues here, but also notably the way in which the child’s thinking is actualised. The environment plays a determining role because, through language, the child can know and experience whatever he comes into contact with. If the child is not given the opportunity to practise his speech, he loses out in the use thereof. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) PHYSICAL FACTORS Jacobson asserted that there is a link between the motor grasping movement and the pre-linguistic beginning of language, namely cooing sounds. The child’s physical condition plays an important part in his acquisition of speech. A child in poor health and who has inadequate nutrition is usually hardly motivated to learn to talk. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) PSYCHOLOGICAL READINESS The child’s total psychological readiness must be so that he is able to meet the demands involved in the acquisition of a language system. Mental readiness to speak comes somewhat later than motor readiness. That is why, during the pre-speech stage, the baby can babble sounds that approximate words and can even say isolated words in parrot fashion. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) INTELLIGENCE The intelligent child usually begins talking at an earlier age than the less intelligent child. However, one cannot generalise because there are numerous other factors that also play a role in the acquisition of language. Be careful not to draw conclusions about a child’s IQ on the basis of the age at which he begins to talk. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) MOTIVATION Some parents do not provide adequate motivation. If the young child discovers that he can get what he wants without asking for it, and if substitutes for speech, such as crying and gestures, serve his purpose, his incentive to learn to speak is weakened. Young children must be encouraged to talk and opportunities must be created for conversation and the exchange of ideas. It is important that the child should know that he is being listened to. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) GENDER Most agree that pre-school girls develop faster than pre-school boys in their acquisition of language. A possible explanation for this is the more rapid physiological maturation of girls – particularly in the left brain, which plays an important role in language development. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) FAMILY FACTORS • Family size: Children from a small family who get a lot of parental attention, usually begin talking sooner than those from a big family. • Birth order: The eldest or the late-born child begins talking sooner than the other children in the family. • Multiple births: Twins, triplets, etc. tend to learn to talk later than other children, because they associate mainly with one another and learn to understand their own jargons. from hlayiso.com Downloaded www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) PERSONALITY The well-adjusted child begins talking sooner, and he talks more than the child who experiences personality and adjustment problems. The child’s speech is often regarded as an indication of his mental health. Regardless of IQ, a shy, withdrawn child will speak less than one who is more extroverted. A bright but impulsive child is far more likely to make grammatical mistakes and use incorrect pronunciations than a less bright child who is calm, deliberate and precise in his speech. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) STUTTERING AND STAMMERING Stuttering is characterised by blocking repetition, stretching of sounds, words or phrases. Since stuttering seems to increase when the child is undergoing stress, it is wise to find out if something is currently making life harder for him. Tension-relieving activities can be provided at the ECD centre to help the child over the difficult situation. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) BILINGUALISM Bilingualism is the ability to use two languages. It involves not only speaking and writing, but also the ability to understand what others are attempting to communicate both orally and in writing. Truly bilingual children are as much at home in a foreign language as in the mother tongue. They are able to speak, read and write both languages with equal facility. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) ADVICE TO PARENTS AND EDUCATORS It is important that the needs of children whose first language is not English are understood and met in the child-care setting. Do not label children who speak little or no English as having language problems or language delay. Their lack of competence is in English, not language. A bilingual or multilingual child will thrive in an atmosphere where language diversity is valued. Speaking more than one language is a positive attribute and should be regarded as Downloaded such. from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) INADEQUATE LANGUAGE SKILLS When a child speaks correctly or nearly correctly, but on a level below that of the norm for his age, he has a quantitative speech lag. His vocabulary, for example, is smaller than that of other children his age, and his pronunciation is on a more infantile level. This condition is generally called delayed speech. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) AUTISM Autism is an emotional handicap. A child with autism cannot communicate normally because he uses repetition and has a wrong conception of language. A child’s symptoms could be very mild, severe, or somewhere in the middle. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) APHASIA Aphasia is a condition caused by brain dysfunctions which result in poor comprehension or language use. Aphasia occurs after some parts of the brain responsible for language are damaged. In most cases, this damage involves the left side of the brain. This results in impairment in language production or understanding and can affect both written and spoken language. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) PRONUNCIATION PROBLEMS Possible causes for articulation or pronunciation problems: 1. Deprivation, e.g. as result of a poor role model. 2. Physical problems, such as teething, cleft palate, organic shortcomings, a hearing defect, poor muscle co-ordination of the tongue, and, cerebral palsy. 3. Low intelligence. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) INSUFFICIENT VOCABULARY • The child’s family often encourages the creation of a separate vocabulary, e.g. walkies instead of walk. • The child substitutes words he cannot find or pronounce by repeating words such as stuff, things or wha-sha-ma-call-it. • A word with more than one meaning can confuse the child, e.g. the soldier stands guard the soldier is a guard. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 2: The development of communication skills (continued) ELECTIVE MUTISM The term “elective mutism” describes the behaviour of children who are silent among all but a small circle of intimates. These children show no organic basis for this type of mutism and comprehend what is said, yet the behaviour persists over many years. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 3: The educator and the child: The development of life skills SELF-IMAGE DEVELOPMENT The self-concept is the person’s view or image of himself. In the adult, the self-concept is a complex and organised idea of the person as a whole and it includes cognitive, emotional and evaluative aspects. This means that the person not only has knowledge of his traits, but also feelings about, and evaluations of, himself and his traits. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 3: The educator and the child: The development of life skills (continued) IDENTITY FORMATION OF THE ADOLESCENT Adolescent identity formation centres around the question: “Who am I?” This is the period in which the greatest measure of identity development takes place, as a result of: • Physical maturation; • Sexual changes; • Cognitive changes; and • Social changes. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 3: The educator and the child: The development of life skills (continued) LEADERSHIP Because of the prestige associated with leadership, all children at some time or other want to be leaders. They are encouraged in this desire by their parents. Not only do many parents believe that being a leader is a sure sign that their children have made superior social adjustments, but they also derive vicarious satisfaction from their children’s status in the group. Few children, however, achieve the status of leaders, and most are followers in the group. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 3: The educator and the child: The development of life skills (continued) STRESS According to Singer, stress can be defined as the physiological (of the body) and psychological (of the mind) retains people exhibit in response to environmental events called stressors. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 3: The educator and the child: The development of life skills (continued) DIFFERENT TYPES OF FAMILIES Nuclear family: The traditional nuclear family consists of a husband, a wife, and their unmarried children, all of whom live as a unit, apart from relatives, neighbours and friends. The polygamous family: In this family a man is spouse and father to two or more nuclear families. Single parents: This family comprises of one parent and one or more children. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com

Module 3: The educator and the child: The development of life skills (continued) THE CHILD AS PART OF A MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY In South Africa, with it heterogeneous population, many language and cultural differences are observed. Children who come from differing cultural or linguistic backgrounds are often environmentally deprived simply because of their “being different” from the dominant culture. Culturally and linguistically different children are very often exposed to other factors that contribute towards environmental deprivation, such as poverty, poor health conditions and unstable home circumstances. Downloaded from hlayiso.com www.futuremanagers.com