Gr10 Geography TG studyguide LR

Via Afrika Grade 10 Teacher’s Guide Teaching is more giving than getting, but I’m okay with that. At the end of the day I want to know that my life is meaningful. So if I can give back in any Geography way to a society or a community or to a country or to the world, then I feel that I’ve done what I’ve needed to do. Grade 10 Study Guide — Timothy Tucker, Teacher P.A.D. Beets, L.M. Innes, G.D. Sammai, K. Najjaar, A.W. Hambly, S.D. Gear, U.J. Fairhurst, Z.P.L. Shabalala Via Afrika understands, values and supports your role as a teacher. You have the most important job in education, and we Via Afrika Geography realise that your responsibilities involve far more than just teaching. We have done our utmost to save you time and make your life easier, and we are very proud to be able to help you teach this subject successfully. Here are just some of the things we have done to assist you in this brand-new course: 1. The series was written to be aligned with CAPS. See pages 8-11 to see how CAPS requirements are met. 2. A possible work schedule has been included. See pages 4–5 to see how much time this could save you. 3. Each topic starts with an overview of what is taught, and the resources you need. See page 20 to find out how this will help with your planning. 4. There is advice on pace-setting to assist you in completing all the work for the year on time. Page 22 shows you how this is done. 5. Advice on how to introduce concepts and scaffold learning is given for every topic. See page 173 for an example. 6. All the answers have been given to save you time doing the exercises yourself. See page 199 for an example. 7. Also included is a CD filled with resources to assist you in your teaching and assessment. See the inside front cover. The accompanying Learner’s Book is written in accessible language and contains all the content your learners need to master. The exciting design and layout will keep their interest and make teaching a pleasure for you. We would love to hear your feedback. Why not tell us how it’s going by emailing us at geography@viaafrika.com? Alternatively, visit our teacher forum at www.viaafrika.com. Language: English www.viaafrika.com

S tud y Gui de Geography Grade 10 Every effort has been made to obtain copyright of all printed extracts in this book. However, if we have unwittingly used material requiring copyright, we request the copyright holder to bring the matter to our attention so we can make the acknowledgements. ISBN: 978-1-41546-318-5

Contents INTRODUCTION TO OUR GEOGRAPHY 10 STUDY GUIDE EBOOK .................................................. 1 Introduction to geographical skills and techniques ................................................ 2 OVERVIEW .............................................................................................................. 2 Unit 1 Geographical Information Systems (GIS) .................................................... 3 Unit 2 Aerial photographs .................................................................................. 4 Unit 3 Topographic maps ....................................................................................8 Unit 4 Using atlases .......................................................................................... 11 Unit 5 Map skills and atlas skills ....................................................................... 12 Unit 6 Fieldwork ............................................................................................... 19 Questions and answers ...................................................................................... 20 Topic 1 The atmosphere .................................................................................... 23 OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................ 23 Unit 1 Composition and structure of the atmosphere .......................................... 24 Unit 2 Heating of the atmosphere ..................................................................... 30 Unit 3 Moisture in the atmosphere .................................................................... 38 Unit 4 Reading and interpreting synoptic weather maps..................................... 42 Questions and answers ...................................................................................... 44 Topic 2 Geomorphology ................................................................................... 46 OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................ 46 Unit 1 The structure of the Earth ........................................................................ 47 Unit 2 Plate tectonics ....................................................................................... 51 Unit 3 Folding and faulting ............................................................................... 55 Unit 4 Earthquakes .......................................................................................... 58 Unit 5 Volcanoes .............................................................................................. 62 Questions and answers ...................................................................................... 64 Topic 3 Population ........................................................................................... 67 OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................ 67 Unit 1 Population distribution and density ......................................................... 68 Unit 2 Population structure............................................................................... 69 Unit 3 Population growth .................................................................................. 72 Unit 4 Population movements ........................................................................... 77 Unit 5 HIV and AIDS .......................................................................................... 83 Questions and answers ...................................................................................... 86 © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0

Topic 4 Water resources ................................................................................... 89 OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................ 89 Unit 1 Water in the world .................................................................................. 90 Unit 2 The world’s oceans................................................................................. 92 Unit 3 Water management in South Africa ......................................................... 98 Unit 4 Floods ................................................................................................. 103 Questions and answers .....................................................................................107 Exam question papers 1 and 2 ................................................................................ Answers to question papers ................................................................................... © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0

Introduction to our Geography 10 Study Guide eBook Welcome to the Grade 10 Geography Study Guide. The subject of Geography has changed dramatically over time and it continues to change because it is one of the most dynamic subjects in the curriculum. After all, the Earth and its atmosphere, the home of humankind, is changing all the time and that is what makes our subject so special. This guide must be used in conjunction with the main textbook, as it is a summary of the main components of the textbook. Geography, like any other subject, does contain facts which must be understood and learnt, but it also emphases skills. It is necessary for the learner to analyse and use these facts to understand phenomena and to try to solve problems. Our lives depend on the ways in which we treat our environment and thus, as citizens of the Earth, we must understand the changes that are constantly taking place and our own impact on our surroundings. Once you have studied the detail in the main textbook, use this guide as a summary. Concentrate on the key concepts and build your knowledge around them. Do this regularly and you will develop into a genuine geographer ready to take your place as a keeper of our vital environment. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 1

Overview This section introduces you, the learner, to geographic skills and techniques that help you to navigate through topographic maps, aerial photos, orthophoto maps, basic geographical information systems (GIS), atlases and fieldwork, with ease. Each of the units (1-6) present relevant frameworks, graphics, as well as, key concepts and content that provide a steady scaffold for you to build further learning. This section is more practical in nature than the others. It is imperative that you practise all the calculations, measurements and map reading to gain the relevant skills and techniques. You could also expand this practical base by setting your own tasks. Unit 2 Aerial photographic images Unit 1 Geographic information systems 2.1 What are aerial photographic images? (GIS) 2.2 Orthphoto maps 1.1 What is GIS 2.3 Satellite images 1.2 The value of digital data 2.4 Vertical aerial phtographs Unit 3 Topographic maps Unit 4 Using atlases 3.1 What are topographic maps? 4.1 What is an atlas? 3.2 Reading topographic maps 4.2 Types of maps in atlases Unit 5 Map skills 5.1 Describe direction with a compass 5.2 Describe position with co-ordinates Unit 6 Fieldwork 5.3 Recognise different map projections 6.1 Steps for conducting fieldwork 5.4 Measure bearings 5.6 Identify landforms 5.7 Measure distance © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 2

Unit 1 Geographical Information Systems (GIS) Unit 1 Geographical Information Systems (GIS) 1.1 What is GIS? • GIS stores geographical data in digital format in a computer. • Very specific data can be uploaded by a user; for instance, street names, location of a site, specific dates indicating oil pipeline constructions, etcetera. • GIS can be used by government, industries, land planners, home affairs, public sector offices and private users. • People are key in developing GIS software that captures important geographic information. • GIS can help geographers to plan (for instance, where to develop new settlements, dams), where to act (for instance, address high levels of pollutants in a conservation area) and evaluate (for instance, the impact of acid mine drainage on local residents). • Its use is constantly informed by new data and new technology. • It provides specific and customised data or information. 1.2 The value of digital information • It can dramatically increase the amount of information that can be collected, stored, analysed and displayed. • The information is stored in a computer system and manipulated in number form. Every number, letter and colour has a numerical code. • Information can be selected, sorted and displayed graphically very easily. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 3

Unit 3 Topographic maps Unit 2 Aerial Photographs 2.1 What are aerial photographic images Aerial photographic images include aerial photographs, orthophoto maps and satellite images. These are based on photographs taken by either aircraft or satellites. Horizontal photograph: GIS: Spatial information derived from taken by a camera pointed images, is geo-referenced using survey horizontally at people, objects techniques and GPS. The information or landscapes. is entered into a GIS. Satellite image: A digital Oblique aerial photograph: picture-like image of remotely Photograph taken by aerial camera sensed data recorded by pointed neither horizontally nor verti- sensors fixed to satellites cally at the object being photographed, orbiting the Earth. but somewhere in between. They show familiar side views and make Vertical aerial photograph: features easier to identify than vertical Photograph taken from the air aerial photographs. by a camera fixed below a plane flying directly overhead. All Low oblique aerial photograph: only features are in the correct ground surface visible (no hori- spatial relationship to each zon)(camera axis about 30° from other. Because only the top vertical) view can be seen, features may not be so easy to identify. High oblique aerial photograph: Camera axis is vertical to surface features and horizon visible ground (90°). (camera axis about 60° from vertical). Spatial information is gathered on the ground through the process of surveying (the measuring of distances and angels between selected features on the ground). © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 4

Unit 3 Topographic maps 2.2 Orthophoto maps 2.2.1 Description • Orthophotos were first made from many vertical aerial photographs that partly covered one another. This was done to create scale corrected images. • Orthophoto maps are made by adding map information to the orthophotos. • An orthophoto map is a combination of a map and a photograph, as shown in the image on the next page. • It has a larger scale (1:10 000) than the topographic map, so features appear larger. • It is more representative of reality than the topographic map. • Orthophoto maps can have contour lines superimposed on them to provide a sense of the relief of the landscape. In this way they can provide critical information about where to build or to assess areas most at risk during flooding. 2.2.2 Advantages • Orthophoto maps have a large scale of 1:10 000 so features can be seen quite easily. • Orthophoto mapping is quick and easy to use for updating maps. • Most urban areas and major growth points are covered. 2.2.3 Disadvantages • Orthophoto mapping is not yet available for the whole of South Africa. • New full-colour orthophoto images have been made available to the general public only recently, so are difficult to get. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 5

Unit 3 Topographic maps 2.2.4 Developments • Since 2008, a special camera called a digital mapping camera has been used. • When this camera is flown over an area, the images are recorded and corrected for scale automatically. 2.3 Satellite images 2.3.1 Description • Picture-like representation of digital data about the Earth, received from sensors carried on satellites. • Information collected from the visible and non-visible parts of the spectrum. • Images are produced that look like photographs but contain more than visible information. 2.3.2 Advantages • Continuous collection of data for the whole Earth. Changes over time can be watched. • Can be entered easily into a GIS. • Data can be looked at in different ways to understand environmental problems. 2.3.3 Disadvantages • High cost of launching and maintaining orbiting satellites, and managing receiving ground stations. • Require highly skilled technicians and professionals to make the best use of the information. 2.3.4 Developments • Developments in satellite imagery closely follow developments in GIS. Early satellite images were not that detailed and could not be used for accurate mapping. • Today, the information is much more detailed and can be used to create accurate maps. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 6

Unit 3 Topographic maps 2.4 Vertical aerial photographs 2.4.1 Description • Overlapping photographs taken vertically above the ground using a specially adapted camera with film. • Thousands of photographs are taken while the aeroplane flies over a planned route. • Vertical aerial photographs are used for making topographic maps. • Many vertical aerial photographs have a larger scale than topographic maps, so features appear larger. 2.4.2 Advantages • Source of spatial data for mapping. • Available in different scales for the whole country. • Collection contains a historic record of photographs used to monitor settlement, economic growth and development since 1930. 2.4.3 Disadvantages • The scale on each photo is only correct at the centre. Most images are in black and white. • Must be scanned and digitised before they can be used for mapping. 2.4.4 Developments • Cameras have been automated and film quality has improved. • Photographs developed from camera film are not used that much today for making maps. The images above show a comparison of an extract of a topographic map (on the left) and a vertical aerial photograph of part of the same area. (Note that the scales are not the same.) © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 7

Unit 3 Topographic maps Unit 3 Topographic maps 3.1 What are topographic maps? Topographic maps are made by using the information from vertical aerial photographs. They are vertical views of the landscape, and contain numerous symbols. 3.1.1 Description • A detailed colour map at a scale of 1:50 000 that shows natural and constructed features. • Mapped from vertical aerial photographs. • Has a line scale, grid reference lines, title and key (reference list). 3.1.2 Advantages • Is colour coded and has a map key that guides the user. • Shows height, distance and can be geo-referenced (because it has lines of latitude and longitude). • All features that appear provide rich information about the area. • The whole of South Africa has been represented on topographic maps. 3.1.3 Disadvantages • Does not automatically provide a three dimensional view – height clues have to be identified and interpreted. • Small print – requires lots of practical use to become familiar with details and symbols. • Costly – maps become outdated and have to be replaced with updated ones. 3.1.4 Developments • Will always have a use, informed and enhanced by remote sensing and GIS information, which is becoming more technologically advanced. • Will be used less once people have increased access to computers and GIS competence. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 8

Unit 3 Topographic maps 3.2 Reading topographic maps • Vertical view of a place (like the area south of King William’s Town illustrated on the following page). • Three types of symbols are evident – point, line and area symbols. • Areas can be regular – such as rectangles (for instance, cultivated fields), triangles or circles. Or they can be irregular (for instance, dams have varying shapes). Extract from 1:50 000 Topographic Map 3227CD King William’s Town (Chief Directorate: National Geospatial Information) © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 9

Unit 3 Topographic maps Map key (reference list) for 1:50 000 topographic maps 3.2.1 Key to the map symbols • The symbols represent the most important elements on the topographic map that must be interpreted. • The ‘language’ used to describe specific objects on the map is made up of these symbols. • The shape, size and colour of symbols do not change. • The symbols are placed in their correct position (as the actual things they represent on the ground) – therefore directions, distances and geo-references (latitudes and longitudes) between them represent the directions, distances and geo-references in reality. • Text is always used for place names. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 10

Unit 4 Using atlases Unit 4 Using atlases 4.1 What is an atlas? An atlas is an important toolkit for a geographer. It provides critical information about a place; its location, temperature and rainfall distribution, its height above sea level, political boundaries, population density and distribution, resource distribution and vegetation, among other information. These maps have keys that help the reader to interpret information with ease. Using atlases is fun and educational. 4.2 Types of maps in atlases Types of maps can be grouped according to the area they cover. • A world map shows all the continents and oceans of the world. • A regional map shows part of a continent or country or maybe just part of a country such as a province. • A local map shows a small place or area, perhaps a city or town. Types of maps can be groups according to the topic they cover. • On a political map, boundaries between areas or countries are shown. Each country or area is a different colour and each country or area is named. • On a relief map, height clues show the altitude (or height) of the landscape from low lying areas up to high mountains. The mountains and rivers are usually named in clear text. • On a thematic map, colours in different shades show information about a place. Each thematic map is based on a different theme, such as climate, vegetation or population. Atlas maps have a grid of lines – alphabets across and numbers down – called alpha- numeric grids. Atlas maps show symbols, just like topographic maps. You need to become familiar with: • Map scale • Map symbols • Map grids. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 11

Unit 5 Map skills Unit 5 Map skills 5.1 Describe direction with a compass • You can describe the direction of features, places and objects Needle around you in the field by using a magnetic compass. • The needle on a magnetic compass always points to the magnetic north. • To determine the direction – by way of the eight cardinal points shown on the compass – you first must turn the casing (like a loose lid) on the compass so that the north on the compass card lines up with the needle. • The 16 compass points help you to describe the direction of places or features from and to a main point of reference (you, a place on the map, an object). • First identify your main point of reference –where you are describing direction from. • Make a transparency of the compass graphic on the right. Place the middle point of the graphic on the main point of reference. • Remember, on a map the north of the graphic must be aligned to the true north shown on the map. • Find the line radiating out from the mid-point at the main frame of reference to the place that you are giving direction to. • Describe the direction. Compass card showing directions and bearings 5.2 Describe position with co-ordinates • All places and features on the Earth have a position. • The position can be described accurately by giving its co-ordinates. • The co-ordinates are intersections between lines of latitude (measured in degrees north and south of the equator) and lines of longitude (measures in degrees east and west of the Greenwich meridian). • These lines form an imaginary geographical grid around the Earth. This is knows as a graticule. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 12

Unit 5 Map skills Prime or a) 1° latitude graticule over RSA Greenwich Meridian b) 1° longitude graticule over RSA How angles are used to measure (a) latitude and (b) longitude When writing geographic co-ordinates, comply with the following conventions. 5.3 Recognise different map projections What are map projections? The graticule on the globe can be flattened out in many different ways to make a flat map. The shapes made by the lines of latitude and longitude on the globe are squares near the equator. Because the Earth is spherical, they taper near the poles, appearing more triangular in shape. When cartographers produce or draw a flat map of the Earth, they must be careful to conserve four important properties of map projections: © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 13

Unit 5 Map skills • Shape – flattening regions on a curved globe without distorting their shapes too much. • Area – ensuring that the areas of regions remain in proportion to each other according to their size. • Direction – ensuring the directions between places are correct. • Distance – correctly representing the distance between places. MERCATOR PROJECTION (1569) A • This projection was developed for navigation. • It shows coastlines, angles and directions accurately. • It distorts shape and distance, especially in the polar regions. ROBINSON PROJECTION (1961) B • This projection represents the spherical shape of the globe. • It conserves the relative shape of landmasses. • It distorts direction and dis- tance. PETERS PROJECTION (1972) C • An equal area projection that conserves direction. • It shows the sizes of land masses accurately. • It distorts the shape of land masses, favouring developing countries. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 14

Unit 5 Map skills 5.4 Measure bearings • A bearing is a measurement (in degrees) of the position of one place (see centre point of red arrow) relative to another place (arrow head of blue arrow). The bearing is 135 degrees. • Therefore, a bearing is recorded as an angle with the use of a 360 degree guide or protractor. • In this case a magnetic bearing was measured, because the magnetised needle inside a compass is attracted to magnetic north. Compass card showing • True north lines extend from the north pole to the south pole and directions and bearings are parallel to a straight line of longitude. N (rotational pole) • Magnetic north moves very slightly all the time and does not Magnetic correspond with true north. north pole • There is always an angle between a true north line and a line pointing to the magnetic north. This angle is called the magnetic Equator declination. (latitude = 0°) • The changing angle of the magnetic declination is provided on a S (rotational pole) East declination topographic map as, for example: Angle of magnetic west declination Mean magnetic declination 25 degrees 35' west of true north declination no declination (February 2010) Mean annual change 5' westwards (January 2010-February 2011) • This means that the mean magnetic declination from 2010 to 2011 increased by 5' and is thus 25 degrees and 40' west of true north. • From South Africa, magnetic north always lies west of true north. • If you have to rely on a magnetic bearing, then you have to add the angle of magnetic declination. • If you subtract the angle of magnetic declination from your measured bearing then you have obtained the true bearing. • When the bearing is measured relative to a true north line – aligned to the true north line on a topographic map – then true bearing is measured. 5.4.1 Steps to measure an angle 1 Identify the places FROM and TO and join the line. 2 Draw a true north line from your main frame of reference, that is, from FROM. 3 Measure the angle from true north to the line joining places. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 15

Unit 5 Map skills 5.6 Identify landforms • There are symbols – spot heights and contours – on a map that represent height. • Contours are the main height clues. These are lines joining points of equal height. • Height is given in metres on topographic maps. • Contour intervals of 20 metres are used on topographic maps. Learn the various height clues on the map below, and the related landforms and features. • The pattern of contour lines provides important clues to the shape of the landforms that make up the relief of the whole area. • Relief consists of different landforms, such as mountains, valleys and plains. • Slopes are important features of landforms and determine where people live, plant and build. • Widely spaced contours represent gentle terrain. • Closely drawn contours represent steep slopes. • Widely spaced contour lines followed by closely drawn contours yield a convex slope. • Closely drawn contour lines followed by widely spaced contours yield a concave slope. • Regular slopes are characterised by evenly spaced contour lines © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 16

Unit 5 Map skills Contour patterns of landforms and matching profiles 5.7 Measure distance • Maps are drawn to scale. • Therefore ground distances can be calculated between features or places on a map. • The scale provided on the map is critical to use when calculating distance. • The map scale is the relationship between map distance and ground distance. • Distances on the ground are measured in kilometres (km). These large distances are represented by centimetres (cm) on a topographic map. • Thus map scales have proportionate values, for instance 1:10 000 or 1:50 000. 5.7.1 Ratio (number) and word scales • The scale on a topographic map is 1:50 000. This is a ratio scale. • Stated in words it means that 1 cm on the map represents 50 000 cm on the ground. As 100 000 cm is equivalent to 1 km then 50 000 cm is equivalent to 0,5 km on the ground. • Ratio scales require knowledge of conversions from centimetres to metres or kilometres, depending on what is asked in a classroom activity, test or examination. Open line scales: the distance to the left of zero is subdivided into smaller units of measurement • The line scale (above) is used to read off ground distance quickly. • It is the easiest type of scale to use. • Read off the distance of the double pointed green arrow. It is 2 400 metres or 2, 4 km. • No calculation is required to convert map distance into ground distance. • The left side of the line scale facilitates more accurate measurements. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 17

Unit 5 Map skills 5.7.2 Steps to using a number scale • Measure map distance in cm. • Multiply by the scale factor. • Convert answer to km (divide by 100 000 km) or metres (divide by 100). • Example: 4 (cm) × 50 000/100 000 = 2 km 5.7.3 Large and small-scale maps • Small-scale maps of 1:50 000 indicate that a distance of 50 000 cm on the ground is compressed into 1 cm on the map. This means that the map is compressed and the features shown will be small. • In contrast, a larger scale map of 1:10 000 means that only 10 000 cm on the ground is illustrated in 1 cm on the map. Thus this map is less compressed and more detail is shown. Further, the features shown on a 1:10 000 scale map are larger than on a 1:50 000 scale map. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 18

Unit 6 Fieldwork Unit 6 Fieldwork 6.1 Steps for conducting fieldwork F FINDING A TOPIC • Search the local media, brain storm or engage in discussions with people regarding an issue or problem that is affecting the local community or the environment. • The topic must be current, relevant and interesting. I INFORMATION GATHERING • Identify how you are going to gather your information. • Will you need to research more about the topic before actually investigating or conducting fieldwork? E ENGAGING WITH STAKE- • Who is going to be the source of information? HOLDERS/LOCAL ENVIRON- • You can use surveys in the form of questionnaires to gather in- MENT formation or templates to observe or count – complete a census. L LOCALISING YOUR INVESTI- • Plan your fieldwork within the local context. GATION/FIELDWORK • Engage with the local community within your local environment. • Take the appropriate safety measures when conducting fieldwork. D DATA GATHERING • Decide if the data you are gathering is quantitative (counting, averaging, ranking) or qualitative (gathering perspectives, opin- ions, facts). • Appropriate data gathering devices must be used for reliable and valid findings, for instance tape recorder, thermometer, camera. W WORKING EFFECTIVELY • Plan your schedule and time manage the phases of the fieldwork. • If it involves group work, ensure that all group members are allo- cated roles and deadlines. O ORGANISING YOUR DATA • Sieve your data into fact, opinion, consensus, notable contrasts. • Organise your data into key themes and sub themes. • Be objective when evaluating the data at hand. R RECORDING AND REPORTING • Record your findings according to the relevant themes and sub YOUR FINDINGS themes. • Write a concise report using an accepted format. K KEY FINDINGS, RECOMMEN- • Summarise your key findings. DATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS • Make recommendations – your own and those obtained from re- spondents that are relevant. • Draw conclusions from your fieldwork. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 19

Introduction to geographical skills and techniques Questions Question 1 1.1 Identity features 22, 23, 24 and 25 on the following vertical aerial photograph, with the aid of the accompanying topographic map extract. (8) 1.2 From the topographic map extract in question 1.1 above, describe the symbol that represents: (a) a spot height; (b) a river; (c) an industrial site; (d) a furrow and (e) culti- vated land. (10) 1.3 From the map key for a 1:50 000 topographic map: 1.3.1 Describe the symbol that is used to represent: (a) a railway station, (b) a bridge and (c) a lighthouse. (6) 1.3.2 Differentiate between: (a) perennial and non-perennial rivers, and between (b) na- tional and arterial roads. (4) 1.4 What types of maps are shown in A and B below. Give reasons for your answer. (4) A B © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 20

Introduction to geographical skills and techniques 1.5 With reference to the topographic map of King William’s Town below, in terms of com- pass points, describe the direction of the following places or features from the Jan Tshatshu Dam, using T in Tshatshu as main point of reference: (a) sewage disposal works, (b) diggings, and (c) spot height 364. (6) 1.6 On the King William’s Town topographic map extract in question 1.5 above, use the spot heights to describe the height of the ground: (a) to the north and northeast, and (b) to the south and southwest of the Jan Tshatshu Dam. (4) 1.7 Calculate the distance in kilometres from the centre of the Jan Shatshu Dam wall to trig beacon 172 (in A3) on the King William’s Town topographic map extract in question 1.5 above. (4) © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 21

Introduction to geographical skills and techniques Answers to Questions Question 1 1.1 22 – perennial water; 23 – water reservoir; 24 – recreation ground; 25 – non-perennial river (drainage area) (8) 1.2 (a) a dot and number; (b) – blue line; (c) – large black blocks; (d) – blue line (labelled furrow); (e) – green line around an area marked with evenly spread green double commas (10) 1.3.1 (a) – white rectangular block on black line; (b) – two arrow points facing each other; (c) – red star (6) 1.3.2 (a) perennial rivers – solid blue line, sometimes thick; non-perennial rivers – broken blue line; (b) national road – red line marked by N in a pentagon shape; arterial road – red line marked by R in diamond shape (4) 1.4 A – regional map showing location of rivers; B – thematic map showing distribution of evaporation rates (4) 1.5 (a) south; (b) south west; (c) north northwest (6) 1.6 (a) To the north and northeast, ground increases in height gradually to 348 m then to 349 m. (b) To the south and southwest, ground decreases in height to 326 m then in- creases to 436 m. 1.7 Distance from Jan Shatshu Dam to trig beacon 172 = 4,6 cm × 50 000 cm (2) = 230 000/100 000 km = 2,3 km (2) © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 22

Topic 1 The atmosphere Overview This section comprises four units. These are the composition and structure of the atmosphere, the heating of the atmosphere, moisture in the atmosphere, and reading and interpreting synoptic weather maps. Key concepts and processes related to the study of the atmosphere are explained using different forms of data, including synoptic and other maps, satellite images, tables and graphs. Apart from assessing if you have sufficient knowledge of these concepts and processes, you also will be expected to be able to apply your understanding in familiar and unfamiliar contexts. You also will be required to extract information from data or information sources in an assessment like an examination, a test or a task. Sometimes you may be required to provide a neatly labelled sketch of a key concept or process. Several other important skills are presented in this section, including cause and effect relationships, interpreting climate graphs, maps, satellite images, interpreting and summarising information from illustrations. This section will help you to study the atmosphere as both beneficial and sometimes life threatening. •1.1 Understanding the atmosphere as a system •1.2 Why is the atmosphere so important? Unit 1 •1.3 What is the composition of the atmosphere? •1.4 What is the structure of the atmosphere? •1.5 The ozone layer in the atmosphere •2.1 Temperature changes over time and space •2.2 Processes associated with the heating of the atmosphere Unit 2 •2.3 What are the ways insolation is spread in the atmosphere? •2.4 How is energy transferred from the Earth’s surface? •2.5 What factors affect the temperature of different places? •2.6 The Greenhouse effect (enhanced effect and impact) •3.1 The different forms and quantities of water •3.2 Evaporation and condensation Unit 3 •3.3 Humidity •3.4 Clouds •3.5 Precipitation •4.1 What are synoptic weather maps and why are they important? Unit 4 •4.2 What are the symbols used on South African synoptic weather maps? •4.3 How are satellite images used by meteorologists? © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 23

Unit 1 Composition and structure of the atmosphere Unit 1 Composition and structure of the atmosphere 1.1 Understanding the atmosphere as a system The atmosphere is a system that is made up of parts that work together. These are: Inputs (What goes into the atmosphere?) • Insolation (INcoming SOLar RadiATION) • Particles from space • Heat, gases and solids from the Earth Stores (What is stored in different formats in the atmosphere?) • Heat energy • Moisture (as water, water vapour and ice) • Gases: constant gases (nitrogen, oxygen); variable gases (carbon dioxide, ozone); inert/noble gases (argon, helium, neon, krypton) • Non-gases (dust, salt and smoke particles) • Pollutants Outputs (What goes out to the atmosphere and space?) • Heat from the Earth (terrestrial radiation) • Gases (oxygen from photosynthesis) • Solids (from volcanoes, soil erosion and fires) • Moisture (from evaporation and transpiration) 1.1.1 What is the significance of the atmosphere? The atmosphere is a part of the Earth's structure. It is a sphere of gases, liquids and suspended particles. Three other spheres, which are in constant interaction with each other, form the natural environment. These are: • the lithosphere (soil and rocks) • the hydrosphere (water bodies including the frozen regions) • the biosphere (that portion of the Earth and Atmosphere (air) atmosphere which supports life). 1.2 Why is the atmosphere so important? Biosphere The atmosphere provides oxygen for all life, absorbs Hydrosphere (water) Lithosphere (earth) harmful radiation, burns up meteors, allows just Biosphere enough heat through during the day to sustain life, and Lithosphere (earth) holds just enough heat at night to stop us from freezing. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 24

Unit 1 Composition and structure of the atmosphere 1.3 What is the composition of the atmosphere? The following table summarises the gases in the atmosphere, the amount of each in the atmosphere, as well as its importance for life on Earth. Gases in the atmosphere and their significance Type of gas Gas Percentage Importance for weather and Other functions/source by volume climate Constant Nitrogen (N₂) 78.09 • Mainly passive • Needed for plant growth gases Oxygen (O₂) 20.95 • Produced by photosynthe- sis; reduced by deforesta- tion Variable gases Water vapour 0.03 (can • Source of cloud formation • Essential for life on Earth; (H₂O) rise to 4.0) and precipitation; re- can be stored as ice/snow flects/absorbs incoming radiation; keeps global temperatures constant Carbon dioxide 0.03 • Absorbs long-wave radia- • Used by plants for photo- (CO₂) tion from the Earth and so synthesis; increased by contributes to ‘green- burning fossil fuels and by house effect’; its in- deforestation crease, due to human ac- tivity, is a major cause of global warming Ozone (O₃) 0.00005 • Absorbs incoming ultra- • Reduced / destroyed by violet radiation chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Inert of noble Argon (Ar) 0.93 • • gases Helium (He), Trace • • neon (Ne), Kryp- ton (Kr) Non-gases Dust, salt and Trace • Absorb/reflect incoming • Come from volcanoes, me- smoke particles radiation; form condensa- teorites, soil erosion by tion nuclei necessary for wind cloud formation Pollutants Sulphur dioxide, Trace • Affect radiation; cause • From industry, power sta- methane acid rain tions and car exhausts © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 25

Unit 1 Composition and structure of the atmosphere 1.4 What is the structure of the atmosphere? • Four distinct layers make up the atmosphere's structure. • Three of these layers are found in the homosphere (troposphere, stratosphere and mesosphere); one is found in the heterosphere (thermosphere). • Homosphere (±80 km above the Earth’s surface) • Constant gases (fixed mixture) • Nitrogen (78,09%), oxygen (20,95%), inert/noble gases (0,93%) • Variable gases (varied mixture) • Heterosphere (>100 km above the Earth’s surface) 1.4.1 What are the layers of the atmosphere, from Earth’s surface upwards? Troposphere • The troposphere is the layer directly above the Earth’s surface. • It extends up from surface for 12 km. The upper boundary of the layer is the tropopause. • It is warmed by the Earth’s long-wave radiation, and processes like conduction and convection. • The temperature decreases with increasing altitude at average rate of 6,4°C/1000 m. This is called the environmental/normal lapse rate. • All weather processes take place in this layer. This is why passenger planes fly just in the tropopause. Composition Kilometres • Air pressure falls with height. Temperature Stratosphere Function Exosphere 480 • The stratosphere layer extends in altitude from Thermopause 12-50 km. The upper boundary of the layer is the 400 stratopause. • The ozone layer is situated between 15-35 km 320 above the ground and is called the ozonosphere. Ozone absorbs incoming ultraviolet radiation, Heterosphere 200 which may be harmful to humans, other Thermosphere Temperature animals and plants. 160 profile lonosphere • The stratosphere is characterised by an increase Meteors auroras in temperature caused by a concentration of Mesopause -90°C ozone. 80 noctilucent cloud Mesosphere • It acts as protective layer against incoming meteorites. 0°C Stratopause Mesosphere 50 • The mesosphere layer extends from 50-80 km. Homosphere Ozone • It receives meteoric dust, which forms nuclei. Stratosphere layer • Noctilucent clouds form from ice crystals. 20 Ozonosphere -57°C Equatorial • Temperature falls rapidly, with lowest Normal lapse rate tropopause Troposphere temperatures of -90°C. Ice crystals form around 10 Polar /6.4C° / 1000m nuclei. Strongest winds are recorded. tropopause Mount Everest 0 °C -90 -30 0 15 32 400 800 1200 Structure of the atmosphere © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 26

Unit 1 Composition and structure of the atmosphere Thermosphere • The thermosphere is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere, from 80-480 km. Uppermost boundary is the thermopause. • There is a rapid increase in temperature with increase in height, to 1500°C. • Solar radiation is absorbed by atomic oxygen. 1.5 The ozone layer in the atmosphere Highest concentrations of ozone are found between 15-35 km above the Earth's surface, in the stratosphere. Under natural conditions ozone is formed and destroyed all the time. Ozone absorbs the harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays from the Sun. (Also look at the other types of rays from the Sun in figure 40 on page 52 in the Learner’s Book.) Ozone depletion, together with a number of unusual climatic conditions, cause an ‘ozone hole’ over Antarctica. It is most noticeable in spring because of more intense heating in the Southern Hemisphere. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 27

Unit 1 Composition and structure of the atmosphere As a geography learner, you often will be required to make connections between different types of information and/or data. You will be required to understand cause and effect relationships, as in this case of ozone depletion. Such relationships will reappear when you study the greenhouse effect, global warming and weather shown on the synoptic chart. Causes Effects Human activities are destroying Increase in skin cancer and in ozone more rapidly than it is leather-like skin being formed. The main gases responsible for this are the release Increase in eye diseases, for of: DEPLETING instance cataracts • chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in THE Weakens immune systems aerosols, air conditioners and OZONE refrigerators LAYER Disrupts marine food chains • halons in fire extinguishers • carbon tetrachloride in solvents Damages plastic and cleaning agents • methane from burning fossil Causes an increase in smog fuels, and also emitted by animals and wetlands Reduces photosynthesis, water- • methyl bromide used in use efficiency, dry matter pesticides. production in crops © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 28

Unit 1 Composition and structure of the atmosphere 1.6 Ways to reduce ozone depletion How can the issue of ozone depletion be addressed? You can only start to deal effectively with the issue when you first have a good understanding of your own vulnerabilities and what factors influence the impact of ozone depletion Application is important in geography. You always will get diagrams and pictures that you will be required to decode (making them easier to VULNERABILITIES understand). Latitude: Most at risk: people living close to equator and high Illustrations like these give a lot of southern latitudes information or data that needs correct Distance for the ozone hole area Most at risk: people from interpretation. Australia Generic: skin colour New Zealand Southern Chile Most at risk white people • Can you identify the two main Southern Argentina Cultural behaviours: Cloud cover Sun-seeking vs. sun-protective types of factors that make peo- Dress Shade, forest cover Sun-sensitisation(education) Health impacts due to ple vulnerable to ultra violet ra- Immune system unltraviolet radiation Altitude competence: Most at risk: HIV- + diation? Melanoma Cancers infected people • Carcinoma of the skin Snow cover elderly people children Solar keratoses Can you identify the main health Sunburns Seriousness Professional: Reactivation of herpes labialis SKIN - impacts? Most at risk: Cortical cataract outdoor workers Pterygium Conjunctivitis + Read the information and data Weakened immune system EYES - carefully and identify the key parts of Individual factors the illustration and key headings or Factors determining the local UV radiation level highlighted words. Then you will be able to summarise the illustration in your own words, or even illustrate it differently so that you understand it Factors Individual factors Health determining the determining own impacts if at local UV radiation exposure to UV risk level radiation Latitude, altitude Genetic skin colour Sun burn Distance from the Cultural behaviour Cancer ozone hole Immune system com- Leather skin Cloud cover petence Shade or forest cover, Profession snow cover © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 29

Unit 2 Heating of the atmosphere Unit 2 Heating of the atmosphere 2.1 Temperature changes over space and time 2.1.1 Over space Temperatures vary over the Earth’s surface. • Hot at the equator • Cold at the poles 2.1.2 Over time • As you should know by now, night and day temperatures differ. • Different seasons also have different temperatures. • Temperature thus changes over time, as can be seen in the climate graph below. 25 A climate graph shows two Rainfall in mm Temperature in °C 20 graphs on one illustration. 15 The line graph shows the average temperature pattern for 10 the year. 5 100 The bar graph shows the 50 average rainfall pattern for the 0 0 J F M A M J J A S O N D year. The climate of Buenos Aires 2.1.3 Temperature variations at a place occur at three scales Scale 1: Advection Scale 2: Diurnal/daily Scale 3: Seasonal variations Advection is due to the Mostly influenced by the region's Higher average temperature in horizontal movement of situation and climate. summer – in December in the cold or warm air masses. Coastal areas – maritime climate – Southern Hemisphere. Effect is illustrated by sea moderates climate – smaller Lower average temperature in conditions experienced in temperature range. winter – in June in the Southern Berg wind conditions in Inland areas – continental climate – Hemisphere. South Africa. absence of moderating effect of the The opposite situation will be sea – larger temperature range and experienced in the Northern more extreme temperatures. Hemisphere. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 30

Unit 2 Heating of the atmosphere 2.2 Processes associated with the heating of the atmosphere • Temperature varies over space (horizontally and vertically) and over time. This drives circulation in the atmosphere. • The source of nearly all heat energy is the Sun. • The atmosphere is actually heated by the Earth because insolation passes through the atmosphere and heats the Earth. The Earth becomes a radiating body and gives off terrestrial radiation, which is absorbed by the atmosphere. This is the heat that we feel. Wavelength (m) radio microwave infrared visible 6% scattered ultraviolet gamma by air X-rays 3% absorbed by ATMOSPHERE 20% clouds and emit- reflected by ted to space clouds 16% absorbed by 4% reflected by greenhouse gases 51% absorbed water and lad and emitted to radiation by water and surface conduction land space convection EARTH 2.3 What are the ways insolation is spread in the atmosphere? 100% incoming insolation is spread by three processes: • Absorption (66%) – Water vapour, dust and gas absorb 16%. Clouds absorb 3% – they are poor absorbers. In total, 19% of the radiant energy is absorbed in the atmosphere. The Earth's surface absorbs 51%. About 4% is reflected back to the atmosphere from land and sea surfaces. • Scattering (12%) – by dust and gas molecules. 6% insolation is scattered back into space and 6% reaches the Earth's surface and is absorbed there. • Reflection (22%) – 20% reflected (back into space) by clouds, 2% by the Earth's water and land surfaces. Shiny white ice has higher reflectivity (albedo) than water and the vegetation of equatorial regions. 2.4 How is energy transferred from the Earth’s surface? The Earth heats its atmosphere through three processes: • Radiation – short-wave radiation reaches the ground and changes to infrared long- wave radiation, which heats the atmosphere. • Conduction – occurs in the first metre of the atmosphere, energy moves from molecule to molecule, the molecules do not move, and they are packed together. • Convection – heat is distributed by moving molecules. Strong vertical movements by liquids and gases. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 31

Unit 2 Heating of the atmosphere 2.5 What factors affect the temperature of different places? 2.5.1 Latitude • At A – Sun’s rays strike the Earth at a lower angle (indirectly) and solar energy spreads over a larger area. • Sun's rays go through more atmosphere near the poles, which absorbs more heat and light. • At the poles most of the heat and light is reflected back into space by white ice and snow (high albedo). • At B – the Sun's rays strike the Earth at a higher angle and insolation is concentrated over a smaller area, therefore there is greater surface heat. There is less reflection. 2.5.2 Altitude (height above sea-level) • Air temperatures increase with height in the troposphere. • That is because the Earth heats the atmosphere from ground-level. Water vapour and carbon dioxide that absorb heat are also concentrated in the lower atmospheric layers. • Although Mt Kilimanjaro is situated near the Equator (3°S), its summit (5 895 m above sea level) is covered with snow throughout the year. In contrast, the town of Moshi, a few kilometres south on its lower slopes at a much lower altitude, has an annual mean temperature of 23,3°C. 2.5.3 Ocean currents • Heat is distributed between the poles and equator through winds and ocean currents. • Cold air over cold currents from the poles is carried towards adjacent land areas where temperatures are lowered. • With warm ocean currents from the equator come warmer air masses, which increase the temperature of adjacent land areas. • In this way the warm North Atlantic Ocean currents influence the horizontal Drift keeps Norwegian harbours ice-free. distribution of temperature • In South Africa, the cold Benguela Current along the west coast gives Port Nolloth (29°14'S) a mean annual temperature of 14,2°C. Durban, also on the coast and at nearly the same latitude (29°32'S), has a mean annual temperature of 18,6°C. This is because of the Warm Agulhas (Mozambique) current on the east coast. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 32

Unit 2 Heating of the atmosphere 2.5.4 Distance from the sea OVER CONTINENT OVER WATER Temperature conditions Temperature conditions • Land and water react differently to insolation. more extreme – land warms more extreme – land This gives rise to two types of climate: maritime and cools rapidly. warms and cools slowly Less evaporation (sea) and continental (land). (lower latent heat). Greater evaporation insolation • Water is transparent. The Sun's rays enter deeper (higher latent heat) in water (10 m) than in land (25-50 cm). Surface is Surface is transparent • Specific heat of water is greater than land. A opaque Water has a higher volume of water requires twice as much heat specific heat Land has a lower specific heat Water has mobility than the same volume of land to raise its and mixes in vast Land has no mixing temperature by 1°C. between layers ocean currents Ocean • Land heats and cools quickly, so the temperature land range is larger. The temperature range is the Maritime-continental differences difference between the highest and lowest temperatures (daily, monthly, annually). • Water heats and cools slowly, so the temperature range is smaller. • Water moves, distributing heat over a wider area and greater depth. On land the heat is concentrated in the upper most layer. • The albedo (reflectivity) of water varies more than land. Up to 90% of energy can be reflected off a water surface. 2.6 The greenhouse effect A greenhouse is used for growing plants in cooler climates. It allows the short-wave radiation to escape, but traps the long-wave radiation. This then heats the air inside the greenhouse and the temperature increases. The atmosphere acts in a similar way, by allowing in the insolation, but then trapping the out-going terrestrial radiation by gases such as carbon dioxide and water vapour. This process, called the ‘natural’ Greenhouse effect warms the atmosphere. • Human activities have increased the amounts of greenhouse gases (gases which absorb terrestrial radiation), such as carbon dioxide, methane, CFCs and nitrous oxide in the atmosphere. • This leads to what scientists describe as the ‘enhanced’ greenhouse effect – an increase in the ‘natural’ greenhouse effect, which they fear could result in a gradual increase in the Earth’s average atmospheric temperatures and global warming. See if you can identify the ‘natural’ and ‘enhanced’ greenhouse effect processes on the following diagram. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 33

Unit 2 Heating of the atmosphere Km Km Isolation (heat from sun Less heat passes through the natural Gases absorb heat; some escapes into gases). heat escapes back into space. space. Natural greenhouse gases Increase in greenhouse gases due to hu- 15- man activity (burning fossil fuels, Outgoing radiation (heat) deforestation, methane release and CFCs). -15 passes through greenhouse gases, is “trapped” beneath More heat is them or is reflected back to trapped causing Earth’s surface global warming. 0- Earth’s surface is heated -0 2.6.1 What is the impact of the greenhouse effect on the environment and people? Impact of the greenhouse effect on the environment and people Impact on environment Impact on people • Up to 15% of Nile Valley and 9% of Bangla- • The amount of arable land will be greatly desh could be flooded; also low-lying areas reduced such as the Netherlands • Loss of fertile agricultural land • Salt levels will increase (salination), affecting • About 8 million people in Egypt could be agriculture and coastal ecosystems homeless • Floods from storm surges will increase and • Cities like London and Los Angeles could be get stronger flooded • Low-lying areas become lagoons or a new • Increased costs to protect cities coastline • Costly structural damage and marine flooding • Increase in beach erosion • Changes in agricultural patterns, e.g. a de- • Inlets and estuaries will enlarge and deepen cline in the USA’s grain belt, but an increase • Warming will be greater over land than over in Canada’s growing season oceans • Greatest food security risk for poor and land- • With increase in greenhouse gases, acid rain less people will increase • Populations in subtropical and mid-latitude • Natural habitats of plants and animals will areas will be at greater risk of being affected shift by diseases such as malaria, schistosomiasis • Melting glaciers – Mt Kilimanjaro loses gla- (bilharzia) and sleeping sickness cial ice, affecting local water supply © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 34

Unit 2 Heating of the atmosphere 2.6.2 How can greenhouse gases be reduced? In an exam or assignment think creatively about measures that can be taken across sectors to reduce greenhouse gases. What can schools do? What can we do at home? Businesses? Incentives? Ways to reduce greenhouse gases The energy sector The transport sector Other greenhouse gases • Introduce measures to save • Expand public transport • Reduce agricultural use of electricity systems nitrogen fertilisers • Higher standards for do- • Set carbon emission limits • Expand methane extraction mestic appliances on light vehicles from waste dumping areas • Introduce a carbon tax on • Reduce speed on roads • Reduce emissions of fluoro- electricity generation • Do environmental assess- carbons from aluminium • Introduce an energy tax on ments on transport plans smelters and ban their use combined heat and power and infrastructure invest- as chemicals. ments • Reduce production of CFCs • Introduce electric vehicles © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 35

Unit 2 Heating of the atmosphere 2.7 Global warming 2.7.1 Is there evidence for global warming? • Human activities like manufacturing, transport and deforestation, add increasing quantities of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. • Each year, these emissions add a further 7 000 million tons of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, which is likely to stay there for hundreds of years. • This may lead to global warming, as can be seen from these graphs illustrating temperature increases globally. Temperature increases in Africa and on other continents 2.7.2 How do greenhouse gases cause global warming? Greenhouse gas Where is it found Function Contribution to global warming (%) Water vapour Concentrated in the Absorbs a small amount Clouds and water lowest 10 km of the of outgoing radiation. vapour account for troposphere over 97% of the natural greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide Concentrated in lower Absorbs long-wave ra- About 50% troposphere diation from the Earth Methane Concentrated in lower Absorbs long-wave ra- About 18% atmosphere diation from the Earth Nitrous oxide Concentrated in lower Absorbs long-wave ra- About 6% troposphere diation from the Earth. Concentrations rise at about 0.3% per year CFCs Rises to the ozone About 24% (lasts layer (15 to 50 km about 100 years in above the Earth’s sur- atmosphere). By face) 2030 it is estimated CFCs will account for 33% of global warming). © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 36

Unit 2 Heating of the atmosphere 2.7.3 What are the possible impacts on climate and climate change in Africa? • A possible temperature increase of 4°C by 2080. • Temperature increase could be as much as +7°C in the south and +8°C in the north. • Rising sea levels with drastic effects on populated, low-lying areas. • Climatic changes such as extremes of drought followed by heavy rainfall, which lead to the expansion of deserts. • Change of weather patterns causing failure of crops. • Migration of animals and people to avoid increasing aridity. • Extinction of animals and plants due to habitat change. • Flooding and conflicts over scarce resources. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 37

Unit 3 Moisture in the atmosphere Unit 3 Moisture in the atmosphere 3.1 The different forms and quantities of water HEAT ENERGY TAKEN FROM ENVIRONMENT 3.1.1 What are the different forms of water in the atmosphere? Sublimation Water exists in the atmosphere in three different physical states: Melting Evaporation • gaseous water vapour • liquid water Freezing Condensation Vapour Solid Liquid • solid ice. (ice) Deposition The different states of water in the atmosphere are related to each other HEAT ENERGY RELEASED TO ENVIRONMENT through the processes of: • Evaporation – Liquid water changes to water vapour. • Condensation – Water vapour changes to water when it cools. If the atmosphere becomes oversaturated, it will lead to precipitation. • Freezing – Liquid water changes to ice below the freezing point, and heat energy is released. • Melting – Ice changes to water above the freezing point, and heat energy is absorbed. • Sublimation – Sometimes ice changes directly into water vapour. 3.1.2 Where can we find water in different forms? WHERE THE WATER IS ALL WATER of which oceans 97.5% Fresh water 2.5% of which Ice caps and glaciers 79% Groundwater Easily accessible 20% surface fresh water 1% of which Takes 52% Atmospheric water vapour 8% Soil moisture 38% Water within living organisms 1% Rivers 1% © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 38

Unit 3 Moisture in the atmosphere 3.2 Evaporation and condensation Water vapour 3.2.1 The water cycle: evaporation, condensation and precipitation Rain and snow transpiration (precipitation) The hydrological cycle describes the journey of water as water molecules make their way from the The water cycle Earth’s surface to the atmosphere, and back again. This gigantic system, powered by energy from the evaporation Sun, is a continuous exchange of moisture Lakes and streams Infiltration between the oceans, the atmosphere, and the land. Water table groundwater 3.2.2 How do we interfere with the water cycle? It happens when we consume huge amounts of fresh water and use up underwater supplies. • When we clear land of vegetation to build roads and parking areas, we minimise water soaking into the ground. • When there is more water on the surface, the possibility of flash floods increases, surface run- off is greater, and it can lead to soil erosion. 3.3 Humidity What is humidity and how does it relate to the term ‘relative humidity’? • Humidity simply means that the air contains water. • Relative humidity, the term most often used, refers to the amount of water vapour that exists in a gaseous mixture of air and water vapour. It is the ratio of the amount of water in the air at a given temperature relative to the maximum amount it could hold at that temperature. • A wet and dry bulb thermometer is used to measure humidity, which is written as a percentage. 3.4 Clouds Sun Clouds 3.4.1 What are clouds and how are they formed? • Clouds are large collections of tiny water droplets or Condensation level ice crystals. Cooling, rising, • In the diagram you can see as warm air rises, it starts Sun’s heat condensing air parcel (blue dots presents to cool. Water vapour condenses around moisture condensation nuclei (like dust, smoke, soot). Rising warm air parcel • Clouds are formed when condensation takes place – Warm air above the ground ground when the dew-point temperature is reached. • Precipitation forms when air becomes oversaturated. Warm ground © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 39

Unit 3 Moisture in the atmosphere 3.4.2 How are clouds named and what are the associated weather conditions? Cloud 10 km Characteristics (height) Weather cirrostratus type Cirrus 8 km Cumulo- Tall (8-10 km), dark grey, strong air cur- Summer rain – cirrostratus nimbus rents thunderstorms cumulonimbus Cirrus Thin, wispy (thin lines), 8 km and above, No precipitation, 6 km altostratus point in the direction of the wind blowing indication of a cold front 4 km stratocumulus Cumulus Big cotton wool balls, clear sky in between Can create cumulus – can develop into cumulonimbus in sum- rain/hail 2 km nimbostratus mer and spring stratus Stratus Flat, hazy, featureless, at low altitudes, May produce driz- vary in colour from dark grey to white zle Cloud types and their heights 3.5 Precipitation What are the different forms of precipitation? Precipitation is any form of water particle, liquid or solid, that falls from the atmosphere and reaches the ground. Form Formation process Dew Forms when water vapour condenses onto the ground. Frost Forms when dew freezes or when the dew point temperature is below 0°C. Hail Forms in cumulonimbus clouds. Water droplets freeze and are taken up into the top of the cloud by strong up-draughts. The droplets fall when the up-draught slows and they are carried up by further up-draughts. Eventually they are too heavy to be held aloft and they fall as hail. Snow Forms when temperatures are below freezing in clouds. Water droplets freeze and form tiny ice crystals. These attract other crystals and form snowflakes. When they are heavy enough they fall out of the clouds as snow. If the temperatures are above freezing close to the ground then the flakes will melt and rain will fall. If temperatures remain below freezing then snow will fall onto the ground. Rain Forms when the air is saturated, condensation nuclei are available, and the temperature cools to dew point or below. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 40

Unit 3 Moisture in the atmosphere 3.6 Mechanisms that produce different kinds of rainfall For rain to form, warm air with enough moisture needs to The rising air expands and cool down to dew-point temperature (that is the cools. Condensation temperature at which water vapour changes to water takes place. droplets or dew). Different mechanisms in nature help to Rising warm air Rain create lift in rising moist air so that it can cool down and The Earth’s surface heats the air above it. The heated air expands and becomes lighter then the surrounding air. eventually produce different types of rain. Convectional rainfall 3.6.1 What is convectional rain? • Occurs when there is intense heating of the Earth’s surface especially during summer. • Evaporation takes place and moist air rises and cools. • Convectional rain occurs in areas with high temperatures. • Common in summer rainfall areas in the South African interior. 3.6.2 What is relief or orographic rain? Rising air cools Precipitation • Occurs in coastal areas that have hills or and condenses (orographic rainfall) mountains. • Wet, onshore winds from the sea are forced Orographic uplift Cool dry air; warms as it descends Warm moist air; Mountain to rise and cool against the mountain. cools as it rises. range Warm dry air • When the air cools to its dew point, condensation occurs. desert • Relief rain falls on the sea-facing mountain Relief (orographic) rainfall Orogfraphic rainfall is the name side. given to rainfall that results when a body of air is forced to • The other (lee) side is drier. rise by a topographic feature. 3.6.3 What is cyclonic or frontal rain? • Cyclonic rain occurs when warm moist air Warm air rises, Cold front from the frontal system rises over colder air. cools and water vapour condenses. • Warm air rises, cools and condenses and Rain falls Cold air Warm front frontal rain falls. • Common over the Western and Southern rain Warm air Cold air Cape, especially during winter months. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 41

Unit 4 Synoptic weather maps Unit 4 Reading and interpreting synoptic weather maps 4.1 What are synoptic weather maps and why are they important? • Synoptic weather maps offer a summary of weather conditions over a country over a particular period of time. • They can be used to predict weather and issue warnings. • Weather stations on the map give information of the weather elements – temperature, dew point temperature, cloud cover, wind direction, wind speed and atmospheric pressure. • By collecting weather information over a large area, meteorologists can observe the behaviour and movement of weather formations that might affect a region, now and in the future. • Common symbols used on synoptic weather maps are illustrated below. 4.2 What are the symbols used on South African synoptic weather maps? • The date on a synoptic map will tell you the season. • The isobars indicate the air pressure along that specific line. • Closely spaced isobars indicate a strong pressure gradient and consequently strong winds. Where isobars are spaced far from each other, it indicates a weak pressure gradient – which means calm to less windy conditions. • Some isobars form circle-like patterns, which indicate cells of either high or low pressure. We determine the type of pressure cell by looking at the increase (high) or decrease (low) of air pressure towards the centre of the pressure cell. Symbols used on South African synoptic weather maps © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 42

Unit 4 Synoptic weather maps 4.3 How are satellite images used by meteorologists? Meteorologists use satellites to measure our weather from spa ce. Satellite images cover large areas and on a continuous basis. This provides meteorologists with better data and information to do more accurate weather forecasts and predictions. The different wavelengths of radiation that these satellites study provide us with images that illustrate different atmospheric and weather features. The visible range of the spectrum gives us information about: • Cold fronts and general cloud structure • Cloud bands and thunderstorms over the SA interior • Effects of the Southeaster on the West Coast. The water vapour range of the spectrum shows the distribution of water vapour in the atmosphere. It gives us information about: • Frontal systems • Moisture sources • The movement of clouds. The infrared range of the spectrum gives us information about: • Cloud formation at night • Regions of cold, cool and warm air • Temperature contrasts such as hot deserts and cool coasts. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 43

Topic 1 The atmosphere Questions Question 1 Refer to the source below and answer the questions that follow, for 50 marks. SOURCE: THE SUNDAY TIMES, Page 2, 24 July 2011 1.1 State the season that South Africa is experiencing? Provide evidence – at least three reasons from the source. 2+(3×2)=(8) 1.2 Is rainfall in the Western Cape typical during this season? Explain. 2+(2×2)=(6) 1.3 Identify the type of rain that the Western Cape is most likely to experience. Provide a labelled sketch of this type of rainfall. 2+(6×1)=(8) 1.4 Look at the temperature graphs for Durban and Cape Town. Account for the warmer temperatures that are experienced along the east coast during this season. 3×2=(6) 1.5 Account for Durban experiencing a lower temperature range than Johannesburg. 3×2=(6) 1.6 Provide brief weather reports for Richards Bay and Ladysmith. 2(2×2)=(8) 1.7 Identify and explain the possible cloud type, its formation and associated weather at George? 4×2=(8) © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 44

Topic 1 The atmosphere Answers to Questions 1.1 Winter (2). The date. July is a winter month (2). Colder temperatures observed at night and day throughout the country (2). Snow is being reported over parts of South Africa and winter rain is typical over the Western Cape at this time of the year (2). 1.2 Yes (2). The pressure belts shift northwards with the ‘direct’ rays of the sun (2). Cold polar air brings cold front to the south western part of South Africa, i.e. Western Cape in winter (2), with heavy rainfall along frontal zone when colder polar air forces warm air to rise (2). Western Cape experiences a Mediterranean climate (winter rain). 1.3 Frontal rain (2) (6×1=6) 1.4 The Agulhas current (2) flows from the equatorial regions (2) bringing warm air to the eastern parts of South Africa (2), therefore Durban has warmer average annual tem- perature throughout the year. Cape Town along the west coast experiences lower tem- peratures partly because of the cooling effect of the cold Benguella current coming from the cold polar regions. 1.5 Durban is near the coast (water has a high specific heat) and experiences a maritime climate (2) while Johannesburg is inland (lower specific heat) and experiences a conti- nental climate (2). Therefore Durban has a lower temperature range – cools and heats slower than Johannesburg, which has a higher temperature range (heats and cools quickly) (2). 1.6 Richards Bay is sunny with warm temperatures experienced at night (15°C) and day (25°C) (2) with south easterly off shore winds of 30 km/hour (2). In contrast, Ladysmith is experiencing fog (2) with colder overnight temperatures below 0°C. Daytime tem- peratures will reach a maximum of 22°C (2). 1.7 Cumulonimbus clouds (2) – South easterly winds are blowing onshore (2) forcing warm air to rise over the escarpment, creating tall clouds characterised by strong vertical air currents – orographic/relief rainfall and thunderstorms result (2). Thus George experi- ences cold daytime temperatures with thunderstorms (2). © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 45

Topic 2 Geomorphology Overview This section comprises five units. These are the internal structure of the Earth, plate tectonics, folding and faulting, earthquakes, and volcanoes. This section is illustrative, to provide you with concise and relevant information that is well linked. A critical examination of the illustrations and related labels and other information is needed for a complete understanding of the content. These illustrations are enablers to help you to understand critical events and outcomes, like environmental disasters that affect people around the world. Links between key concepts and processes across the five units must be made. The five units are integrally linked and a good understanding of one unit supports an understanding of another unit. Unit 1 The structure of the Earth 1.1 The Earth’s structure Unit 2 Plate tectonics 1.2 The rock cycle 2.1 Continental drift 1.3 Intrusive igneous activity 2.2 Plate tectonics 1.4 Major factors shaping landscapes Unit 3 Folding and faulting Unit 4 Earthquakes 4.1 Formation of earthquakes 3.1 Formation of folds 4.2 Measurement and recording 3.2 Types of folds earthquakes 3.3 Fold mountains 4.3 Earthquake waves 3.4 Faulting 4.4 Strength of earthquakes Unit 5 Volcanoes 5.1 Formation of volcanoes 5.2 Classification of volcanoes 5.3 Types of volcanoes 5.4 Impacts of volcanoes on people © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 46

Unit 2 Plate tectonics Unit 1 The structure of the Earth 1.1 The Earth’s structure • All three forms of matter – solids, liquids and gases – make up the Earth. • The Earth is made up of four distinct layers; a solid outer crust, a solid mantle, a liquid outer core and a solid inner core. • The Earth is 4,56 billion years old. Continental crust 6-9 km thick (solid rock) Mantel 2 900 km thick (molten rock) Outer core 2 250 km thick (dense but liquid) Inner core 1 200km thick (solid) The structure of the Earth 1.1.1 Continental crust • The crust is the outermost layer of solid rock, on which we live. It is thicker under the continents and thinner under the oceans. • The lithosphere consists of the crust and the solid top part of the mantle. • The crust is broken into smaller segments, called plates, which float on the mantle. • The crust is 6-90 km thick (solid rock). • The temperature increases with depth. 1.1.2 Mantle • The mantle is beneath the crust. • It is 2 900 km thick, consisting of hot and plastic but solid rock. Temperatures may reach 5 000°C. • The Moho discontinuity is the boundary between the crust and the mantle. 1.1.3 Outer core • The outer core layer is very dense but liquid due to extremely high temperatures. • It is 2 250 km thick. • It consists of nickel (Ni) and iron (Fe). Known as NiFe. 1.1.4 Inner core • The inner core is extremely hot. • It is solid because of extreme pressure. • It is 1 200 km thick. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 47

Unit 2 Plate tectonics 1.2 The rock cycle • The rocks in the crust of the Earth are always changing. Rocks change when they are heated and subjected to pressure deep underground. • The Earth's moving crust is twisted and squeezed by pressures within the Earth. • On the Earth's surface rocks are broken down by water, wind and ice (weathering) and destroyed by erosion. The ongoing process of making, breaking down and remaking any one type of rock to recreate another type is called the rock cycle. 1.2.1 Processes that change rocks in the rock cycle • Pressure and temperature turn sedimentary rocks into igneous rocks. • Pressure and temperature turn igneous rocks into metamorphic rocks. • Temperature turns sedimentary rocks into metamorphic rocks. • Weathering turns metamorphic rocks into sedimentary rock. THE ROCK CYCLERock broken down UPPER CRUST - SEDIMENTARY ROCK by weathering Lava cools on surface and forms Glacier transports • Sediments deposited by wind, water igneous rock rock debris Sediments laid Sediments washed out to sea, are and ice build up in layers. down in layers eventually turn deposited in layers and pressed down • Older layers are squeezed under the into rock Sediments carried out in the deep ocean MID-OCEAN weight from above and become solid floor RIDGE SEDIMENTARY Magma cools under rock. surface and forms OCEAN CRUST Magma pushes up ROCK igneous rock between plates that METAMORPHIC are moving apart underground ROCK → Tectonic plates that are diverging (moving apart) and converging (moving together) create new igneous rock. → Weathering by wind, rain and chemicals breaks down IGNEOUS ROCK exposed rock. → Rock fragments are transported by water, wind and ice. Rock fragments are deposited on land and seabed and compacted (pressed down) into rock. → Rock lifted up and exposed to surface by plate move- ments. Exposure to pressure and heat alters rock to create metamorphic rock Conglomerate Limestone Shale Formed from large Consolidated seashells Consolidated clay • All rocks can be classified into one of pebbles three main rock types: igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic rocks, depending on how they were formed and how they were changed. CRUST - IGNEOUS ROCK DEEPER CRUST – METAMORPHIC ROCK • Magma rises through the crust, cools and • Igneous and sedimentary change by crystallises into new rock. heat and pressure. • The slower the cooling, the larger the crystals formed in rock. Gneiss Marble Slate Changed granite Changes limestone and Changed shale dolomite Granite Obsidian Basalt Very hard rock Cools quickly Dark and fine-grained Contains lage Glassy texture Most common igneous crystals rock © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 48

Unit 2 Plate tectonics 1.3 Intrusive igneous activity • Magma can form igneous rock either by erupting on the Earth's surface as lava, or by solidifying as a mass underground. • Intrusive igneous activity occurs when the magma intrudes into spaces underground and hardens. Granite is a common type of igneous rock that is formed in this way. 1.3.1 What landforms are associated with intrusive igneous activity? Intrusive bodies such as batholiths, laccoliths, lopoliths, pipes, dykes and sills are formed by intrusive igneous activity. They are exposed on the Earth's surface only after millions of years. Parallel batholith dykes Volcanic plug with lopolith radiating dykes Horizontal sill laccolith Pipe Igneous instrusions Batholiths • Largest intrusive form – formed when an enormous mass of magma pushes upwards and solidifies under Earth's surface. • Usually made of granite – exposed on the surface by erosion – removal of weathered rock by wind/water/ice. Example: Paarl Mountain in the Western Cape Laccoliths and lopoliths • A laccolith is formed when magma intrudes between older layers of sedimentary rocks, pushing the overlying strata upwards in the shape of a mushroom. • When magma intrudes between horizontal sedimentary layers and the layer beneath collapses, a saucer-shaped intrusion, called a lopolith forms. • Smaller than batholiths – not formed as deep in the Earth's crust. • Both are connected to the magma source by means of a dyke or pipe. Example: Bushveld Igneous Complex © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 49

Unit 2 Plate tectonics Pipes, dykes and sills – often made of dolerite • Pipe – a chimney-shaped intrusion, magma moves up the pipe to the surface. • Dykes and sills – formed when magma solidifies in thin horizontal or vertical sheets. • Dyke – wall-like intrusion – cuts vertically across rock layers. • Sill – forms when magma spreads horizontally between layers. • Dykes often visible as narrow exposed ridges. • Sills visible as cap rock of mesas (flat top mountains) and buttes (flat-topped hills). Example: Flat-topped Karoo hills 1.4 Major factors shaping landscapes • Resistance to erosion – Harder rocks are more resistant to erosion. • Permeability of rocks – Impermeable rocks do not allow water to pass through them. 1.4.1 Sedimentary rock landforms • Karst landforms – formed in limestone. • Consists of caves, springs and aquifiers. • Rock permeability and chemical weathering are key factors. 1.4.2 Igneous rock landforms • A tor is a typical granite landform. • Formed when joints and cracks in the granite are weathered under the surface of the ground. Remaining core-stones eventually exposed through erosion of the surrounding material. • Whalebacks are exposed batholiths. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 50

Unit 2 Plate tectonics Unit 2 Plate tectonics 2.1 Continental drift • In 1923 Alfred Wegener suggested that the continents were drifting. • Today it is believed that 200 million years ago a super continent, which comprised all continents, existed. Geologists call it Pangaea. • 135 million years ago Pangaea split into Laurasia (the northern continent) and Gondwana (the southern continent). • Subsequently, these two continents also split up to form today’s continents, which are still moving apart. 2.1.1 Evidence supporting the movement of continents over time • The east coast of South America fits the west coast of Africa almost perfectly at 2 000 m below sea level, except for geologically recent submarine deltas like the Niger and Orange River. • Geology and fossils of Africa and South America are similar. • Glacial deposits in Brazil match those in West Africa. • Rock formations along South Africa’s west coastline match those along South America’s east coastline. • Similar coal deposits are found in the same stratigraphic positions in Antarctica, South America, India, Africa and Australia • Lystrosaurus (which could not swim) fossils are found in Africa, India and Antarctica. Evidence of continental drift © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 51

Unit 2 Plate tectonics 2.2 Plate tectonics The Earth is divided into a series of plates which fit together like a jigsaw puzzle and float on the plastic rock of the upper mantle. They move at various rates, up to 30 cm per year, because convection currents in the solid (but putty-like) mantle push them in different directions. Major plates of the world © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 52

Unit 2 Plate tectonics 2.2.1 Plate margins Various types of margins – namely destructive, constructive, conservative and collision margins – form at plate boundaries, depending on the movement of the plates at that boundary. These four margins and their formation are illustrated in the table below. CONSTRUCTIVE MARGINS Two plates move away from one another. Molten rock (magma) rises to fill the space. New oceanic crust and mid-ocean ridges form. Gentle volcanoes and earthquakes. Plates pull apart Example: Mid Atlantic Ridge Magma rises from mantle DESTRUCTIVE MARGINS Mountain range Ocean crust moves towards continental crust. Ocean crust sinks. Deep-sea trenches and volcanic islands arcs (a string of islands) occur. Continental Ocean plate plate pushed under Can trigger violent earthquakes and violent volcanic erup- tions. Example: Japan CONSERVATIVE MARGINS Two plates slide past each other slowly. No crust is formed or destroyed. If the plates stick, pressure builds up and severe earth- quakes result, moving the plates again. There are no volcanic eruptions. Example: San Andreas fault in California Himalayas formed COLLISION MARGINS Two plates consisting of continental crust collide. Eurasian Rocks between the plates are forced upward to form fold Indian plate plate mountains. Can cause strong earthquakes. No volcanoes. Example: Himalayas © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 53

Unit 2 Plate tectonics 2.2.2 The world’s volcanic and earthquake zones • Note that belt of earthquakes occurs where plates are moving apart – North and South American plates on the left and African plate on the right. • A belt of volcanoes is also evident in this region. Earthquakes around the world Volcanoes around the world Predictability of earthquakes • Signs like tremors need to be heeded. • Use instruments that record the tension in rocks and estimate earthquake risk. • Landform shape changes can inform. • Animal behaviour can inform. • Receding coastal shorelines can inform. Reducing impact of earthquakes • Locate active fault zones using surveys. • Identify high-risk areas. • Ensure effective emergency facilities. • Strengthen infrastructure (roads, homes). • Tsunami warnings in applicable areas. Predictability of volcanoes • Ground temperatures can increase. • Volcanoes emit gas and steam. • Rising magma can cause volcanoes to bulge. • Tilt meters can measure slope changes of volcanoes. Preparing for volcanic eruptions • Monitoring and warning systems, evacuations, efficient emergency systems/services (medical, water, food). © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 54

Unit 3 Folding and faulting Unit 3 Folding and faulting 3.1 Formation of folds • Sediments laid down in horizontal layers form sedimentary rocks. • Folds form when tectonic plates push together, placing the rock layers under tremendous pressure. • The rock layers compress and form fold features. These range from simple folds to heavily compressed folds, which also feature fractured rock. • Fold mountains are normally formed on the edges of colliding plates. For instance, the colliding Indian and Eurasian plates form the Himalaya mountains. MORE COMPRESSION LESS Overthrust fold or nappe (the rock has been fractured) Recumbent fold overfold Simple fold Other types of folds 3.2 Types of folds 3.2.1 Overthrust fold • Also called a Nappe. • Pressure is very great. • Fold breaks/fractures – faulting occurs. • One limb is pushed forward over the other limb. 3.2.2 Recumbent fold • Occurs under extreme pressure. • Result is the limbs become nearly horizontal. 3.2.3 Overfold • Similar to an anticline fold. • Except that the one limb is more steeply inclined than the other. 3.2.4 Monocline • Is the simplest fold. • Step-like fold in rock strata. • Consists of an area of steeply sloping rock strata in an area of otherwise gently sloping rock strata. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 55

Unit 3 Folding and faulting 3.2.5 Syncline and anticline • A syncline fold is where rock layers fold downwards in a U shape. • An anticline fold is where rock layers fold upward in a ∩ ∩shape. 3.3 Fold mountains Famous fold mountains Alps, Rockies, Himalayas, Cape Fold Belt mountains in South Africa, Atlas in north Africa, Mount Everest (8 850 m above sea level). South Africa's fold mountain treasure Cape Fold Belt mountains – 23 ranges. Highest peak 2 325 m above sea level. Older than the Alps and Himalayas. Effects of mountains on people • Often sparsely populated. • Cattle, sheep and goat farming is suitable for mountainous areas. In the foothills crops can be grown – terrace farming. • Tourism is popular in fold mountains, for instance, in the Alps, Rockies, Himalayas and Andes – eco-tourism, cultural tourism, photography, skiing and relaxation activities. • Forestry – deforestation results in soil erosion. • Steep slopes with fast flowing rivers – hydroelectric power. 3.4 Faulting 3.4.1 Cause of faults • Under great pressure, rocks can crack or fracture. • One section of rock may then slide alongside or over another. The fracture is called a fault. • Faulting can be caused by either lateral (sideways) or vertical (up and down) forces. • The forces may be caused by tension (rock layers being stretched or pulled apart) or compression (the rocks being squeezed or pushed together). • A normal fault is caused by tension. • If one part of the crust is being compressed then another part is under tension (being stretched). • Rocks under tension usually fault. • Rocks under compression may fault or fold – softer rocks will fold, but harder rocks that are brittle, will fault. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 56

Unit 3 Folding and faulting NORMAL FAULTS Fault plane B A tension A normal fault is caused by tension (A), This is how the area looks after erosion has taken place (B) REVERSE FAULTS AND LATERAL LANDFORMS ASSOCIATED WITH FAULTS TEARING FORCES • Earth movements sometimes cause Reverse fault rectangular-shaped blocks of rock to be pushed up or down. • Results in block mountains (horsts) and rift valleys (grabens). BLOCK MOUNTAINS • Tourist attractions. Compression Compression • Often sparsely populated. A reverse fault is caused by compression. • Can provide site of protection, lookouts, forts. RIFT VALLEYS Internal forces • Steep sides called fault scarps. • Eroding highlands make the valley fertile. • Buried sediments – preserves fossils. • Scenic for tourists. • Example: East African Rift valley A strike slip fault is caused by lateral, horizontal forces. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 57

Unit 4 Earthquakes Unit 4 Earthquakes 4.1 Formation of earthquakes • An earthquake is the sudden, violent shaking of the Earth, caused by the movement of faults. • When two slabs of crust move against each other or one dives beneath the other, movement on the fault between them produces earthquakes. • Collapses in mines can also produce. 4.2 Measurement and recording earthquakes • The focus – the point below the surface epicentre where the earthquake starts. • The epicentre – the point on the Earth’s surface immediately Focus above the focus. The focus and epicenter of an earthquake • Seismic or earthquake waves – shock waves which move out from the focus in all directions. • Seismograph – the instrument which measures seismic waves. • Seismogram – the graph showing the strength of the seismic waves. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 58

Unit 4 Earthquakes 4.3 Earthquake waves • Primary waves (P-waves) – fastest waves – squeeze and stretch the ground. P-waves are the fastest waves. They travel at roughly 8 km per second. They push or squash the rock particles. The different types of seismic waves travel by bending and twisting the ground in different ways. Direction of seismic waves Vibrations of the rock particles as the seismic waves pass through Squeezing movement • Secondary waves (S-waves) – move the rock up and down and sideways at the same time. S-waves travel at about 4.5 km per second. They vibrate the rock up and down and sideways Vertical and horizontal movement • Surface waves – similar to ocean waves, they roll the rock particles over in circles – in the crust of the Earth. Surface waves travel at about 1.5 km per second. They roll the rock particles over like ocean waves. Circular movement © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 59

Unit 4 Earthquakes 4.3.1 Tsunami A tsunami is a big ocean wave that is created by a strong earthquake, a volcano, undersea slump or a large meteorite that hits the sea or nearby land. TSUNAMI 1 Under-sea earthquake – rise and fall in ocean floor. 2 Wave causes sea level to rise. 3 Near land, tsunami wave slows down and builds in height. Sea draws back and creates a big wave that speeds onto land. 4.4 Strength of earthquakes Earthquakes are measured using the Richter scale. It is a logarithmic scale used to measure the energy emitted by earthquakes and to compare the strength of different earthquakes. Measures energy waves emitted by earthquake 6 – 6.9 Damage to well-built structures, severe damage to poorly built ones Can be detected by 0-1.9 a seismograph only Hanging objects Buildings displaced from 2 – 2.9 may swing 7 – 7.9 foundations; cracks in the Earth; underground pipes broken Similar to the vibrations 3 – 3.9 of a passing truck 8 – 8.9 Bridges destroyed, few 4 – 4.9 May break windows, structures left standing cause small or unstable 9 and over objects to fall Near-total destruction, waves 5 – 5.9 Furniture moves, moving through the Earth chunks of plaster may fall from walls visible with the human eye © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 60

Unit 4 Earthquakes 4.5 Effects of earthquakes • Electricity, gas and water supplies are disrupted. • Dam walls may break and cause landslides and mudslides. • A shortage of fresh drinking water, food and medical supplies result. • Industries may be forced to close. • Diseases may break out. • Near the coast, tsunamis (very large ocean waves) may occur. • High fatalities in densely populated areas, instant loss. 4.5.1 Why earthquakes have a greater impact on developing countries Developed countries Developing countries Researchers and geologists provide Under spend on research or complete vital information to predict earth- lack of research. quakes. Construct earthquake-resistant build- Higher population density, more in- ings, causing less destruction. formal settlements – more deaths. Better emergency services and medi- Lack infrastructure and facilities to cal facilities. care for larger population. Better communication networks – Lack communication infrastructure. keep people informed and provide early warning signals. More educated about how to protect Generally unprepared. People live in themselves when earthquakes strike. high risk disaster zones, because of limited space. 4.5.2 Initiatives in developed countries to prepare for earthquakes • Search and rescue teams supported by block captains (California). • Establish a trailer morgue (California). • Specialists using concrete-cutting chain saws to open holes to save trapped victims. • Establishment of first aid stations with volunteer doctors and nurses. • Setting up earthquake warning systems (Japan, Mexico). • A nation-wide alert system (Japan). California doesn't have one yet. • Quakeproof utility ducts deep below Tokyo to minimise damage to water, electricity, telephone, and sewage lines. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 61

Unit 5 Volcanoes Unit 5 Volcanoes 5.1 Formation of volcanoes • Volcanoes are formed when molten material (magma), below the Earth's surface, rises through cracks/pipes and forms a magma reservoir/chamber. • Magma moves through a pipe onto the Earth's surfaces through a vent. • Molten rock at the Earth's surface is called lava. • A volcano can have several pipes. Some don't reach the surface. 5.2 Classification of volcanoes • Active – erupt regularly. Example: Anak Krakatau, erupted 2007. • Dormant– have erupted in recorded history and could do so again. Example: Fujiyama • Extinct – have never erupted in recorded history and probably will not do so. Example: Mt Kenya © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 62

Unit 5 Volcanoes 5.3 Types of volcanoes • Cinder cones (simplest volcanoes): Form when eruptions shoot great quantities of ash and particles of glassy lava into the air. crater • The particles solidify in the air and rain down around the vent. Conical peaks are steepest. Consist of ash Central and solid material. vent • The eruption is explosive. Lava is limited. Example: Italy's Monte Nuovo • Shield volcanoes: Form when lava flows out of a central vent. Lava flow • The result is gentle slopes of enor- Flank vent mous breadth. Bases are dozens of kilometres wide. • The eruption is not explosive. • Example: Hawaii's Mauna Loa • Composite volcanoes: Form when Layers of alternating layers of ash, lava and lava and ash rocks are created by multiple and of- ten explosive eruptions. • Characterised by a steep-sided coni- cal peak. • Example: Vesuvius in Italy and Fuji- yama in Japan 5.4 Impacts of volcanoes on people Positive impacts Negative impacts Tourist attractions: Caldera, hot Can emit dangerous fumes/particles. springs, geysers. Volcanic ash is a good fertilizer. Ash can pollute water supplies. Volcanic material forms fertile soil. Ash can reduce visibility, interfere with aircraft flights. Diamonds can be found in some old Mud flows can cover settlements. volcanic pipes. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 63

Topic 2 Geomorphology Questions Question 1 Refer to the source below and answer the questions that follow, for 50 marks. Source: Quest 6(2); 2010:44 1.1 Is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge at a constructive, destructive, conservative or collision margin? Provide evidence from the source and present a labelled sketch show- ing what occurs at the margin. (10) 1.2 Is the volcano described a shield, composite or cinder volcano? Provide evi- dence from the source. (4) © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 64

Topic 2 Geomorphology 1.3 Provide two characteristics of the other two types of volcanoes? (6) 1.4 Identify two positive and two negative factors that volcanic activity has in this region. (8) 1.5 Explain the concept of plate tectonics. (4) 1.6 What measures should the government consider to safeguard the population of Iceland? Provide any four. (8) 1.7 In five years' time, by how much would the Eurasian and North American plates have moved apart? (4) 1.8 Are conditions suitable for the formation of fold mountains at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge? Explain your answer. (4) 1.9 Distinguish between synclines and anticlines. (2) © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 65

Topic 2 Geomorphology Answers to Questions 1.1 Constructive margin (2) Two plates move away from one another. Molten rock (magma) rises to fill the space. New oceanic crust and mid-ocean ridges formed, for instance, Mid Atlantic Ridge as well as volcanic islands such as Iceland. Gentle volcanoes and earthquakes. (4) (4) 1.2 Composite – fiery eruptions of ash and lava (4). 1.3 Shield volcanoes: Form when lava flows out from a central vent. The result is gentle slopes of enormous breadth - wide base. The eruption is not explosive (3). Cinder cones (simplest volcanoes): Form when eruptions shoot great quantities of ash and particles of glassy lava into the air. The particles solidify in the air and rain down around the vent. Conical peaks – steepest – of ash and solid ma- terial are created (3). 1.4 Positive – Tourist attraction – source of income, geysers providing geothermal energy – 80% of some areas’ energy needs (4). Negative – People have to relo- cate during life threatening or health threatening eruptions. Can disrupt eco- nomic activity (4). 1.5 The Earth is divided into a series of plates that fit together like a jigsaw puzzle and float on the plastic upper mantle (2). They move at various rates up to 30 cm per year because convection currents in the mantle push them in different direc- tions (2). 1.6 Monitoring and warning systems, evacuation plans, efficient emergency sys- tems/services (medical, water, food) (6). Installation of tilt meters (2). 1.7 5 cm (1 cm a year × 5 years) (4) 1.8 No, crustal plates must collide to form mountains (4). 1.9 Syncline – downward fold. Anticline – upward fold. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 66

Topic 3 Population distribution and density Overview This section comprises five units. These are population distribution and density, population structure, population growth, population movements, and HIV and AIDS. This topic covers content, concepts and issues that are both current and pertinent in South African society. The implications of population growth and HIV and AIDS and their impact on population structure are presented in a concise way. You are given examples of how to interpret population pyramids and understand the demographic transition model. Case studies and tabled summaries provide opportunities for learner discussion, debate and critical thinking. Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 HIV Population Population and AIDS Unit 2 movements growth Population 5.1 What are 3.1 How is the 4.1 What kinds HIV and AIDS? structure world’s of population Unit 1 2.1 What population movements are 5.2 What are measures are changing? there? the HIV Population infection rates used to 4.2 Reasons distribution describe a 3.2 What is the in Southern demographic why people Africa? and density population? migrate transition 1.1 2.2 What model? 5.3 What are 4.3 What is the social and Distribution makes a 3.3 Are there rural-urban and density population economic too many migration? effects of HIV 1.2 Census change? people? 4.4 Other and AIDS? 2.3 The age 3.4 How have movements and gender 5.4 What is the countries 4.5 Attitudes to impact of HIV structure of a managed population refugees and and AIDS on population immigrants population growth? (xenophobia) structure? © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 67

Unit 1 Population distribution and density Unit 1 Population distribution and density 1.1 Distribution and density • Population distribution describes how people are spread out on the Earth. • The population of the world is spread out unevenly. • Population density is the measurement of how many people there are in an area. • The following photographs represent sparsely populated regions. • A reason is given for low population densities in mountainous regions, cold regions, densely forested tropical regions, and desert areas. 1.2 Census • Information about population is collected during a census. • A census is a questionnaire issued by governments, usually every ten years. • Census questionnaires ask for information about age, sex, ethnic group, religious belief and occupation. • Everyone must be included in the census, by law. • Governments use census information to make plans for the country’s future © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 68

Unit 2 Population structure Unit 2 Population structure 2.1 What measures are used to describe a population? • World population growth is caused by birth rates being greater than death rates. • Birth rate – the number of births per 1 000 people per year. • Death rate – the number of deaths per 1 000 per year. • Natural increase – population increase because the birth rate is higher than the death rate. • Natural decrease – population decrease because the death rate is higher that the birth rate. • Life expectancy and fertility rates are described in the diagram below. Birth rate = (Total number of live births x 1000) / total population Death rate = Life expectancy (Total number of deaths Number of years that the x 1000) / total population average person may expect to live Fertility rate Number of children that the Rate of natural increase = average woman will have in (Birth rate – death rate x her lifetime 100) / 1000 © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 69

Unit 2 Population structure 2.2 What makes a population change? Factors that make populations change Factors influencing Factors influencing Factors influencing life Factors influenc- Factors influencing birth rate death rate expectancy ing fertility rate natural increase Age and gender struc- Poor medical Improvement in health- Healthcare War ture of a population services care and sanitation Level of education Unhygenic Level of education Religion Disease conditions Religion Malnutrition Poverty Population policy Economic intervention, Age structure Contraception birth control and con- traception Poor nutrition and sex- Socio-economic con- ual drive ditions Wars Inadequate housing Migration Wars Natural disasters Natural disasters 2.3 The age and gender structure of a population • Population structure is the make-up of a population in terms of age, sex and life expectancy. • Population structures are shown as population pyramids. • Less economically developed countries (LEDCs) and more economically developed countries (MEDCs) have different shaped pyramids. Population is divided in 5-year age groups Males are shown on the left; females on the right. Horizontal bars show the percentage of the popualtion in each case Trends in birth rates, death rates, infant mortality rates and life expectancy can be identified © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 70

Unit 2 Population structure © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 71

Unit 3 Population growth Unit 3 Population growth 3.1 How is the world’s population changing? • For most of human history the world’s population remained steady. It took until 1800 for it to reach one billion. Today the world’s population is over six billion. • This rapid growth in world population is called the population explosion and is the result of reduced death rates due to improvements in medicine. • Global population growth is now beginning to slow. It is predicted the population will stabilise at 10,4 billion in 2200. • Population growth is not spread equally between countries – 95% of growth is in LEDCs. • MEDCs have reached a replacement level of population growth or are experiencing a decrease. • The following diagram represents the difference in growth rate between developed (MEDCs) and developing(LEDCs) countries. Developing regions Industrialised regions 10 8 Billions 6 4 2 0 The following table provides an 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 overview of population growth in economically developing countries in contrast with their counterparts. Less economically developing countries More economically developed countries Characterised by fastest population growth – population is in- Very slow population growth. creasing 6× faster than the growth rate in developed countries. 86% of the world's population lives in Africa, Asia and South Some countries in north-west Europe have a zero America. growth rate. HIV/AIDS affecting population growth – will limit growth in Af- Europe's population is decreasing by 1 million rica in next 20 years. people per year. Australia, Japan, New Zealand 99% of total natural increase occurs here – contains 81% of the and North America – natural increase of about world's population. 2,1 million people per year. 90% of the world's births per year – higher infant deaths. On average, natural Increase is 1,4%. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 72

Unit 3 Population growth 3.2 What is the demographic transition model? • The demographic transition model shows how changes in birth rates and death rates affect population growth in countries at different stages of development. • The model may be used to explain population change in five stages (see diagram below). • MEDCs (more economically developed countries) are entering a fifth stage where death rates exceed birth rates and populations are falling. • These stages and corresponding population pyramids can be illustrated graphically. Stage 1 2 3 4 5 High stationary Early expanding Late expanding Low stationary Declining 40 Birth rate Birth and death rates (per 1000 Death rate 30 20 Natural increase Total people per year) 10 population 0 Examples A few remote Egypt, Kenya, India Brazil USA, Japan, France, Germany groups UK Birth rate High High Falling Low Very Low Death rate High Falls rapidly Falls more slowly Low Low Natural Stable or slow Very rapid increase Increase slows Stable or slow Slow decrease increase increase down increase Reasons for Many children needed for farming. Many Improved medical Family planning. Good health. Improving changes in children die at an early age. Religious/ care and diet. status of women. Later marriages. birth rate social support. No family planning. Fewer children needed Reasons for Disease, famine. Improvements in medical car, water supply Good healthcare. Reliable food supply changes in Poor medical and sanitation. Fewer children die. death rate knowledge so many children die. The demographic transition model © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 73

Unit 3 Population growth Symmetrical or These two have convex profiles Concave profile triangular profile Age male female Stage 1 - expanding Stage 2 - expanding Stage 3 - stationary Stage 4 - stationary Typical of less eco- As time goes by, birth Typical of the more economically developed nomically developed rate remains high, death countries. The narrow base is due to low birth countries. The wide rate begins to fall and rate, low death rate and longer life expectancy. base is due to high people live longer birth rate, high death rate and short life expectancy. 3.2.1 Stage 1 – High Stationary • Birth rates high due to lack of contraception. • Death rates high due to poor diets and disease. • Population grows very slowly. 3.2.2 Stage 2 – Early Expanding • Birth rates high as children are needed for labour. • Death rates fall due to improve diets and healthcare. • Population grows rapidly. 3.2.3 Stage 3 – Late Expanding • Birth rates fall due to growth of urban areas (less labour is needed on farms). • Death rates low due to good diets and healthcare. • Population grows more slowly. 3.2.4 Stage 4 – Low Stationary • Birth rates low as women’s rights improve, and contraception becomes easily available. • Death rates low due to high-quality healthcare. • Population is stable. 3.2.5 Stage 5 – Declining • Birth rates fall as women choose higher education and careers over having children. • Death rates low due to continued medical advances. • Population declines slowly. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 74

Unit 3 Population growth 3.3 Are there too many people? • A country is said to be overpopulated if its increasing population leads to a lowering of living standards. • For example, the Netherlands has one of the highest population densities in the world but it is not overpopulated because its standard of living goes on increasing despite any population increase, if any. • Singapore is a densely populated area, which introduced a successful family planning scheme (social and economic incentives would cease if the size of the family grew, contraceptives at low cost, legislated abortion and sterilisation, a voluntary 'stop at two policy' and advertises smaller families). • Somalia, with a very low population density, is overpopulated because the increasing population results in a lowering of living standards in a very poor country. • Population problem – Add 240 000 people each day, 90 million people a year which doubles every 40 years; world population at 6,1 billion; 9 billion by 2050. • Study the graph below representing the above-mentioned projection. Population in thousand million 10 Medium variant projections 9 Nine thousand million people by 2050 World 8 7 6 Sustainable population at a middle income consumption 5 Asia 4 The population of India is expected to overtake that of 3 China around 2030 2 Sustainable population at a high income consumption level 1 China India 0 1950 1970 1990 2010 2030 2050 Population in thousand million © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 75

Unit 3 Population growth 3.4 How have countries managed population growth? Why introduce population policies? To develop population policies, first it’s necessary to understand why people in LEDCs have large families. Reasons include the following: • Labour – children are needed so that they can work and contribute to the family income. • Old age – people without pensions rely on their children to support them. • Infant mortality – poor healthcare means that not all children survive to adulthood. • Religion – some religions disapprove of contraception. • Contraception – birth control methods may be unavailable, or illegal. Governments may encourage people to have fewer children through: • Advertising – attempting to change attitudes and culture. • Financial – offering bonuses to those with small families. • Education – teaching women about family planning. • Healthcare – reducing the infant mortality rate and provide contraception. • Law – rules limiting the number of children. Example: China (population: 1,3 billion) Population policy Effects of policy 1979 – one child per family announced. Birth rates have fallen and population growth Permission is necessary to marry and have chil- has slowed. dren. Boys are more valued than girls – female babies Women must be at least 25 to marry. have been abandoned. Free health care, monthly allowance and im- Population is becoming unbalanced – 110 males proved pension for one-child families. to 100 females Fines for parents having two children. Ageing population will cause dependency prob- Forced abortions and sterilisations have been lem reported. The one child policy has been relaxed in recent years. Women may be allowed to have a second child if the first is a girl. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 76

Unit 4 Population movements Unit 4 Population movements 4.1 What kinds of population movements are there? Migration can be classified into different categories. • Immigration is the movement of people into a country. • Emigration is the movement of people out of a country. • International migration is controlled by governments. They may encourage or discourage migration into their country. Illegal migrants will be returned to their country of origin (deported). Internal – same country International – between countries Permanent – stay for good Temporary – return home later Voluntary – own choice Forced – no choice 4.2 Reasons why people migrate Forced migration (push factor) Voluntary migration (pull factor) Wars and conflict Better employment opportunities Bad treatment (race, religious or political beliefs) To be with friends and family who moved Unsafe conditions because of crime Better climate Natural disasters (earthquakes, volcanoes, hurri- Better social opportunities canes, volcanic eruptions) Shortage of food Better educational opportunities 4.2.1 Factors which may cause people to migrate • Social factors – the desire to live a better life, housing, environment, improved living conditions, improved services, facilities, activities, relationships. • Political factors – people move because they are unhappy with the political system, mainly a push factor. • Economic factors – seeking a better job from business or industry. • Religious factors – people may move to avoid being persecuted because of their religion. Move to where they can practise their religious beliefs. • Physical factors – people may move to avoid physical dangers, a harsh climate or infertile soil. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 77

Unit 4 Population movements 4.3 What is rural-urban migration? • Rural to urban migration is the movement from rural to urban areas. This process is called urbanisation. • Today urbanisation is happening mainly in LEDCs. • 43% of South African people live in rural areas. • In Gauteng, the economic hub of Africa, more people live in urban areas. This trend is followed in the Western Cape. migration Limpopo North West Province Free State Eastern Cape Province Western Cape Rural Population Northern Cape Urban Population Mpumalanga KZN Gauteng 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Population in millions © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 78

Unit 4 Population movements 4.3.1 Cycle of poverty • Many people in poorer rural areas are trapped in a cycle of poverty. • Young economically active people leave the rural areas, leaving dependants (aged and young) behind. • Dependants wait for money – lose hope and courage to try new ideas. • Farms are neglected or abandoned. No one to do hard work. Productivity drops and unemployment rises. • Decreased productivity in the private sector affects the secondary and tertiary sectors – economy declines. • Rural shops, schools and certain services close down – lack of customers to make a profit. • The following diagram summarises the process of urbanisation. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 79

Unit 4 Population movements Rural Areas Urban areas (countryside) (cities) Rural depopulation Urbanisation (decreasing numbers) (increasing numbers) Unpleasant conditions forcing people to leave work areas • Mechanisation causes unemployment • Low wages paid to farm workers • Droughts lead to possible economic failure • Rising farming costs coupled with low prices • Consolidation of small farms Favourable factors attracting people to cities • Better services (medical and education) • Better social and cultural activities • Better entertainment and recreatio CONSEQUENCES (results) Rural areas Urban areas Fewer workers on farms Cities become overcrowded Businesses are forced to close (fewer customers Too few jobs available - unemployment – crime and social problems Further unemployment too few houses – informal settlements Young people leave, causing an ageing population Difficult to provide services for an overcrowded city Few children are born (low population growth) Unhygienic conditions Farms are abandoned Factors responsible for rural depopulation © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 80

Unit 4 Population movements 4.4 Other movements 4.4.1 Seasonal movements • Transhumance is the seasonal movement of people with their livestock over relatively short distances, usually to higher pastures in summer and to lower valleys in winter. • The traditional economy of the Basotho in Lesotho – seasonal migration between the valleys and high plateaus of the Maluti mountains to increase the number of cattle. 4.4.2 Daily movements • From home to work. 4.4.3 Temporary movements • People stay in a place temporarily – for a short time only. Migrant labourers move to another area temporarily to seek employment. • Many migrant labourers are men who return home with their savings or later have their family join them. • Refugees who leave for political reasons may migrate temporarily to another area either temporarily or permanently when lives are in danger. The Rwandan civil war in early 1990s created more than 1,5 million refugees. • Some people's beliefs (religion, political) may differ with the current status quo. • Tourism, short contract work, business travel, conferences and conventions are also examples of temporary movements. 4.4.4 Permanent movements • People who move to a place and decide to stay permanently – no plans to leave. • Depending on government policy, migrant labourers sometimes settle permanently in their area of work or employment. • Approximately 75% of countries have agreed to protect refugees and not return them to their home country. • Accepted refugees have a clear legal status – protected by the United Nation's High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR). • At times, people move because of policies and projects (large scale infrastructural projects like building dams, roads, airports) aimed at developing underdeveloped areas. • Urban area clearance, mining, deforestation, creation of conservation parks, nature reserves, biosphere projects can cause people to move. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 81

Unit 4 Population movements 4.5 Attitudes to refugees and immigrants (xenophobia) Negative attitudes towards immigrants are attributed to various factors: • Refugees are people who have been forced to leave their home country because of war, persecution or natural disaster. The United Nations estimates there are over 13 million refugees spread throughout 140 countries. • Perceptions people have of immigrants taking away jobs that only citizens are entitled to, especially where jobs are in short supply. • Foreign traditions and practices that are different from those of local people. • Fear or hatred for foreigners – local people attack immigrants. • Pressure on existing services (water, electricity, housing, food). © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 82

Unit 5 HIV and AIDS Unit 5 HIV and AIDS 5.1 What are HIV and AIDS? The AIDS epidemic is one of the most destructive health crises in modern times. It destroys families and whole communities across the world. It is a pandemic because it is widely spread across the world. • What is HIV? Human Immunodeficiency Virus – the virus that causes AIDS. • Transmitted by body fluids from one person to another, weakening the body's immune system. • What is AIDS? Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome – when the body is unprotected from harmful infections. 5.2 What are the HIV infection rates in Southern Africa? 11% and above of the adult population in Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa has HIV. It can lead to AIDS, the number one killer in the area. HIV prevalence (%) by province 2002 - 2008 Province 2002 2005 2008 KwaZulu-Natal 11.7 16.5 15.8 Mpumalanga 14.1 15.2 15.4 Free State 14.9 12.6 12.6 North West 10.3 10.9 11.3 Gauteng 14.7 10.8 10.3 Eastern Cape 6.6 8.9 9.0 Limpopo 9.8 8.0 8.8 Northern Cape 8.4 5.4 5.9 Western Cape 10.7 1.9 3.8 National 11.4 10.8 10.9 (source: statistics South Africa) © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 83

Unit 5 HIV and AIDS Study the map of Africa below, showing HIV infection rates. The key on the map indicates the percentage of the total adult population infected with HIV. That’s more than one adult in five in each of Zimbabwe, Botswana, Swaziland, South Africa, Namibia and Zambia, on 28 May 2011. Compare this map with the one in the Learner’s Book (page 196) and note the increase in the incidence of infection since 2000. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 84

Unit 5 HIV and AIDS 5.3 What are the social and economic effects of HIV and AIDS? • Destabilisation of families — loss of income, drop in savings. Healthcare and funeral costs rise. • Health facilities struggle to cope — pressure on healthcare facilities, costs of treating AIDS and AIDS-related opportunistic infections rise. • Production of goods — decreased food production, decline in labour supply, skills losses, absenteeism linked to high productivity costs, healthcare costs rise. • Economy of country — drop evident in reduced GDP. Projections of how HIV and AIDS will affect the labour force Southern Africa: percentage labour force loss due to HIV/AIDS (%) By 2005 By 2020 Botswana -17.2 -30.8 Lesotho -4.8 -10.6 Malawi -10.7 -16.0 Mosabique -9.0 -24.9 Namibia -12.8 -35.1 South Africa -10.8 -24.9 Tanzania -9.1 -14.6 Zimbabe -19.7 -29.4 (source: BERESFORD, B.AIDS TAKES AN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL TOLL, AFRICA RECOVERY, VOL.15 NO 1-2 (JUNE 2001) 5.4 What is the impact of HIV and AIDS on population structure? • Affects mainly the age group 20 to 49, which is the most productive economically. • Affects more women than men. Creates child-headed families. • In 2008, two million people died from AIDS; 33,4 million living AIDS; 2,7 million newly affected with AIDS. • In developing countries very old and very young die. • In South Africa 60% of deaths were in the age group 20-49 yrs. • Death rates rise quickly and life expectancy drops. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 85

Topic 3 Populationdistribution and density Questions Question 1 Refer to the source below on HIV and AIDS in South Africa and answer the questions that follow, for 20 marks. The campaign loveLife has run since 1999 and uses a wide range of media directed mainly towards teens. AIDS is one of the main contributors to South Africa’s infant mortality rate. Between 1990 and 2001 the infant mortality rate increased significantly from 44 deaths per 1000 infants to 56,9 per 1000 infants. Although infant mortality remains high in South Africa, it has declined steadily since 2003 to a rate of 46,9 per 1000 infants in 2010. There are several large-scale communication campaigns related to raising awareness of HIV and AIDS, as well as broader health-related issues. A principal part of the HIV counselling and testing (HCT) campaign launched in April 2010, is to scale up awareness of HIV. Khomanani, meaning ‘caring together’, ran since 2001 and was the government Health Department’s premier AIDS-awareness campaign. Soul City and Soul Buddyz are two multi-media campaigns – targeted at adults and children, respectively – that have a combined annual budget of R100 million, and utilise broadcast, print and outdoor media to promote good sexual health and well being. [Source: www.southafrica-pig.blogspot.com] 1.1 When (date and month) is World Aids Day? (2) © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 86

Topic 3 Populationdistribution and density 1.2 What is the purpose of World Aids Day? (4) 1.3 Why is there a need to establish a day towards AIDS campaigning? (4) 1.4 What was the infant mortality rate in 1990 and 2001, respectively? (4) 1.5 Mention three AIDS-awareness campaigns. (6) © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 87

Topic 3 Populationdistribution and density Answers to Questions 1.1 1 December (2) 1.2 To raise awareness, in order to reduce the HIV infection rate (4). 1.3 There is an increasing rate of HIV and AIDS in South Africa (4). 1.4 44 deaths per 1 000; 56,9 deaths per 1 000 (4) 1.5 Khomanani; Soul City and Soul Buddyz; loveLife campaign (6) © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 88

Topic 4 Water resources Overview This section comprises four units. These are water in the world, the world’s oceans, water management in South Africa, and floods. This section is particularly important in South Africa, with water shortages and flooding affecting many communities and costing billions of rands to address. This section concisely presents relevant content, concepts and issues with the aid of appropriate sources taken from the Grade 10 Learner’s Book. It provides the learner with opportunities for further inquiry and easily can be supplemented or enriched with relevant and current media reports. This section is informative and interesting even to a non-geographer. Unit 3 Water Unit 1 Water in the Unit 2 The world's management in South Unit 4 Floods world oceans Africa •1.1 The different •2.1 Source of oxygen, •3.1 Water in South •4.1 Physical causes of forms of water food (fish farming), Africa floods •1.2 The hydrological energy and wealth •3.2 Predicted climate •4.2 Human causes of cycle •2.2 Ocean currents change affecting South flooding •2.3 Forces causing Africa •4.3 Flood hydrographs ocean currents •3.3 Rivers, lakes and •4.4 Flood •2.4 Major ocean dams in South Africa characteristics and currents •3.4 Factors affecting flood management •2.5 Economic activities the availability and •2.6 Desalination quality of water in processes South Africa •2.7 Ocean pollution © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 89

Unit 1 Water in the world Unit 1 Water in the world 1.1 The different forms of water Water occurs in three states: solid (ice), liquid or gas (vapour). • Ice is frozen water. Ice is less dense (lighter) than the same volume of water. Water molecules move further apart when it freezes. • Liquid water is wet and fluid. • Water vapour is found in the air, where it attaches to dust particles. Water vapour molecules combine to form water droplets. With increasing temperatures (warmer) rain forms from water vapour molecules. With decreasing temperatures, snow or hail form. • When water vapour cools, it condenses into tiny water droplets, which forms a cloud. Other 0.9% swamps 11% rivers 2% Ground- water 30,1% Surface water Fresh water 0,3% 3% Icecaps and Salt water glaciers Lakes 87% (oceans) 68,7% 97% Fresh water Surface water Earth’s total water 1.2 The hydrological cycle The water (hydrological) cycle is powered by Water vapour energy from the Sun. It is the exchange of Rain and snow transpiration moisture between the oceans, atmosphere and (precipitation) land. • Evapotranspiration — water loss from lakes, oceans and plants — results in water Evaporation vapour in the air. Infiltration • Water vapour condenses to form water Lakes and streams droplets, which form clouds. Water table • Moisture that cools (or gets very cold) cre- Groundwater ates precipitation (rain sleet, hail or snow) returning water to the sea and land (ground water and runoff). • Ground water soaks into the ground. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 90

Unit 1 Water in the world Most (97%) of the water on the planet is found KEY CONCEPTS in the oceans and issalty. Evapotranspiration, condensation, freezing and Of the remaining 3% fresh water: precipitation (rain/ hail). • 30,1% is ground water Temperature conditions determine whether water • 68,7% is in the form of ice caps/glaciers vapour (warm), rain (cooling of rising warm air) or • 0,9% other and 0,3% is surface water. hail/snow (cold) form. 0,036% of the Earth's total water supply is Liquid to gas — evaporation; gas to liquid — con- found in lakes and rivers. densation; liquid to solid — freezing. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 91

Unit 2 The world’s oceans Unit 2 The world’s oceans 2.1 Source of oxygen, food (fish farming), energy and wealth 2.1.1 A source of oxygen • Of the 98% of our oxygen that comes from photosynthesis on land and sea, nearly half comes from our oceans. • Photosynthesis converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds using the energy from sunlight. Oxygen is released in the process. • Algae and plankton in the oceans carry out photosynthesis. • Plankton are one-celled plants that live in the oceans. All sea life depends upon plankton for survival. Sunlight oxygen seawater Carbon dioxide plankton Magnifying glass glucose water 2.1.2 A source of food • Millions of tons of fish are harvested from the sea every year. • Fish provide a healthy and reliable source of food. • The result is over fishing and reduced stock levels of certain types of fish. • Fish farming involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, to increase stock levels, mainly for food. • Fish farming provides marketers with another source of fish. • Farming fish such as tuna and salmon increases pressure on wild fisheries because they are fed on fishmeal and fish oil extracted from wild fish. • Thus these fish consume in weight much more than they weigh themselves. • In 2008, 33,8 million tonnes of fish was farmed globally earning $60 billion. 2.1.3 A source of energy • The ocean – its waters, the air above it and the land beneath – is rich in energy resources. • Non-renewable energy sources — oil and gas. • Renewable energy sources — wind energy, wave energy, ocean current energy and solar energy. • Much of the world's oil and gas comes from beneath the ocean floor. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 92

Unit 2 The world’s oceans 2.1.4 A source of wealth Tourism • The warmer oceans and islands attract tourists, cruise liners and investment and employment. • A country's economy is strengthened by these activities. Ecotourism is also a significant venture in such countries. • Example: Kwa-Zulu Natal's coastal tourism industry Trade • Fishing industries in colder nutrient rich oceans facilitate trade. • Examples: West coast, Cape Town, Namibia 2.2 Ocean currents What are ocean currents? An ocean current is the horizontal movement of water on a large scale in the oceans. It is a steady flow of ocean water in a constant direction. 2.2.1 How ocean currents influence climate • The air above the warm ocean current is warmed by the water. • The air above the cold ocean current is cooled by the water. • Warmer air can hold more water vapour than cooler air. • Ocean currents have a great influence on climate because of their effect on temperature and humidity. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 93

Unit 2 The world’s oceans 2.3 Forces causing ocean currents • Wind — The friction of wind on the surface moves water. When wind blows constantly, the current flows quickly. • Salinity — More salty water is denser than less salty water. When the two masses meet the denser saltier water will sink. • Temperature — The colder water gets, the denser it gets. Colder water will sink. • The Earth's rotation — The Coriolis force is caused by the Earth's rotation. Movement of air or water in the Northern Hemisphere is deflected or moved slightly clockwise to the right, and slightly anti-clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. • Gravity — One of the major forces affecting currents. The movement of water due to salinity and temperature is influenced by gravity. Gravity makes the dense water sink. 2.4 Major ocean currents 2.4.1 In the world • One of the best-known currents is the warm Gulf Stream. • It flows north-east from the USA to north-western Europe. • It is a 100 km wide and 800-1 200 metres deep. • It’s average speed is about 9 km/h. • It is also known as the North Atlantic Drift. 2.4.2 In South Africa • South Africa has a warm ocean current — Agulhas — on the east coast and a cold ocean current — Benguela — on the west coast. • The Agulhas current is the world's fastest, flowing at 10 km/h. • Desert conditions characterise the west coast because of the cold current. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 94

Unit 2 The world’s oceans 2.5 Economic activities 2.5.1 Fishing • A quarter (25%) of the world's fish harvest comes from oceans with cold currents (5% of total ocean area). • South Africa's fishing industry is worth about R2 billion annually. • It employs about 30 000 people. • A large percentage of our fish comes from the upwelling nutrient-rich waters of the cold Benguela current. • The cold nutrient-rich waters of the Benguela current rise up when the south-easterly winds blow the surface water to the north-west. • When the wind blows away the surface water, water from below the surface takes its place. • This upward movement of water is called upwelling. • This upwelling takes place along the west coast of Africa from Cape Town to as far as northern Namibia. • Colder water from below is more nutrient-rich than the warmer surface water. • Plankton and fish move upward with the colder, nutrient rich water, providing fishing opportunities. Downwelling — downward moving surface water — reduces the amounts of nutrients and fish in an area. • When the wind stops, upwelling stops, and plankton and fish are not attracted to the area. SE wind Cold water Warm water plankton Warm surface Cold nutrient-rich water water at depth 2.5.2 The causes and effects of over fishing Over fishing occurs when more fish are caught and removed from an area than are born in that area. Thus fishing becomes unsustainable. Effects of over fishing include: • quotas to limit the amount of fish that people catch • very low levels of fish in certain areas • the removal of all fish in some areas • loss of jobs • loss of money • excessive time usage and un-productivity involved in fishing activities where fish stocks have declined. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 95

Unit 2 The world’s oceans 2.5.3 Management strategies to prevent over fishing • Issuing fishing permits and quotas. • Strategies that educate people about limited or threatened fish stocks such as South African Sustainable Seafood Initiative (SASSI). • SASSI produced a pocket-sized card that informs people about fish that have low stock levels (orange — think twice, red — don't buy) and good stock levels (green — best choice). 2.5.4 Tourism • Warm ocean currents lead to a year-round tourist industry. • The Indian Ocean's Agulhas current off South Africa's east coast is an example. • KwaZulu-Natal's tourism industry is worth about R20 billion per year. • In 2010, over 500 000 visitors from overseas came to KwaZulu-Natal to enjoy its golden beaches and warm water. 2.5.5 Trade • In the past, winds and ocean currents influenced shipping and trade routes. • Today ship's captains use ocean currents to speed up their journeys. 2.6 Desalination processes The desalination process is obtaining fresh water from seawater by removing salt. • Many ships and submarines use desalination to obtain fresh water. • Desalinating large quantities of water requires lots of energy and a lot of expensive equipment. • A boiling process can separates the fresh water from salt. • A process called reverse osmosis uses a specialised membrane which lets water through but not salt. Sea water membrane fresh water 2.6.1 Desalination in South Africa • An option but very costly — consumes a lot of electricity and produces very large quantities of salt. • A few small plants use the reverse osmosis process — on the Eastern Cape coast and at Sedgefield near Knysna. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 96

Unit 2 The world’s oceans 2.7 Ocean pollution The pollution of the ocean is caused by: • Oil spills from tankers and oil wells • Rubbish dumped into the sea — toxic waste and mining materials • Polluted ground water (farming chemicals and pesticides) and the disposal of the contents of septic tanks, pesticides, animal dung, household waste, waste water and nuclear waste • Fishing nets from boats or plastics that are thrown into the sea. 2.7.1 Effects of pollutants on the sea • Death of marine wildlife. • High cost of clean-up operations. • Reduced stock levels and contaminated water. 2.7.2 Ocean pollution management strategies • Use non-toxic chemicals in homes, on farms (pesticides and fertilisers) and in industry. • Responsible dumping and waste disposal strategies that reduce contamination. • Recycle oil. • Reduce litter and plastic usage. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 97

Unit 3 Water management in South Africa Unit 3 Water management in South Africa 3.1 Water in South Africa • South Africa is a semi-arid country — one of the 30 driest countries in the world. • Uneven water availability across the country — annual rainfall varies from less than 100 mm (west coast) to 1000 mm (east coast). • Large parts of South Africa receive only 250-500 mm of rain per year. • The average rainfall of about 450 mm a year is well below the world average of 860 mm a year. • No rain in winter for most of the country. In south-western part of Western Cape no summer rain. • Large amount of water is lost through evaporation annually. 3.2 Predicted climate change affecting South Africa • A general decrease of 5-10% rainfall. • Longer dry spells in the interior and north-eastern areas of the country. • Floods probably will be more frequent and more severe. • Some parts of South Africa could experience greater runoff and stream flow of up to 10%. • Decrease in runoff on east coast. • By 2015 water demand will outstrip supply. • The Vaal area receives an average annual rainfall of 700 mm and loss by evaporation of 1 500 mm. Evaporation rates © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 98

Unit 3 Water management in South Africa 3.3 Rivers, lakes and dams in South Africa 3.3.1 Rivers and lakes • South African rivers are small by African and world standards. • The total flow of all South African rivers is less than half that of the Zambezi River, the closest large river to South Africa. • Large inter-basin transfers of water have been carried out in South Africa. This process transfers water from one river basin (Orange) to another (Fish) through tunnels and canals. • There are a few small estuaries (St Lucia) — the wide part of the river where it meets the sea — in South Africa; no large lakes. 3.3.2 Dams in South Africa Many large storage dams have been built to help store and manage our water supplies. There are more than 500 dams, with a total capacity of 37 000 million cubic metres. These often are part of major water transfer schemes, like the one illustrated below. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 99

Unit 3 Water management in South Africa 3.3.3 The use and impact of dams Reservoir displaces com- Rotting vegetation munities, floods, disturbs releases greenhouse ecosystems, increases wa- glases and degrades ter-borne diseases, fills up water quality. with silt. Dam wall blocks fish Downstream impacts: re- migration and disrupts duced water and sediment water and sediment flow reduces biodiversity, flow wall could break less water for downstream causing flooding users, less crop production, downstream. reduced fish population. The impact of dams – the Msunduzi River, Pietermaritzburg The uses of dams The impact of dams • Provide water to towns/cities • Settlements • (Gauteng-Vaal Dam)/recreation • Ecosystems/biodiversity • Crop irrigation • Climate change • Hydroelectric power – electricity • Water/environment quality • Control/reduce floods • Flooding 3.4 The factors affecting the availability and quality of water in South Africa The land use practices The effect of human activities • Built surfaces – roads and pavements – in towns and cities • Industry and mining activities cre- reduce infiltration and increase runoff. ate polluted water supplies – Acid • Polluted city water requires expensive treatment before re- Mine Drainage (AMD) – acidic water use. from mines. • Dams, bridges, water transfer schemes (Tugela-Vaal) and • Industrial pollution generates poi- canals alter the rate of flow and quantity of water in our riv- sonous and hazardous chemicals, ers. increases salinity, nutrients and • Soil erosion results in silted dams, which reduces dam ca- sediments. pacity. • Agricultural water pollution (fertil- • Alien vegetation, which uses more water than indigenous isers and agro-chemicals) – eutro- vegetation, reduces stream flow by up to 10%. phication © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 100

Unit 3 Water management in South Africa 3.4.1 Challenges of providing free basic water (FBW) • The South African Constitution guarantees human rights to water. • FBW policy (2000) allows every household 6 000 litres of free water per month. • Implementing FBW is time-consuming and expensive. • Rural communities are small and spread out – difficult to reach. • Urban areas are growing rapidly and increased informal settlements strain service delivery. • Rapid urbanisation has lead to sanitation problems, with sewage contaminating water supplies. • Agricultural chemicals pollute rivers. 3.4.2 Role of municipalities in water purification and provision There are three levels of water supply and sanitation. • National Government (Department of Water Affairs) provides policies that manage water resources, sanitation, plans for new dams, and inter-basin transfer schemes (schemes which transfer water from high supply drainage basins to high demand and supply water areas). • Water Boards operate dams, offer retail services and run some waste-water treatment plants. Fifteen water boards supply water to nearly half of South Africa's population in 90 municipalities. (Examples: Rand Water, Umgeni Water). • Municipalities buy water from Water Boards, purify it and sell it to customers, sending out accounts. Some municipalities own their own dams. (Example: Rand Water – One of the largest water utilities in the world. Its distribution network includes 3 056 km of large-diameter pipeline, feeding 58 service reservoirs. It supplies, on average, 3 653 million litres of water daily. Customers are mines, industry, local and metropolitan municipalities.) 3.4.3 Sustainable use of water – what governments and individuals can do Sustainable water use is using water resources in a way and at a rate that prevents the long-term loss of water. • Recycle water – purification or sewage treatment plants provide safe, quality water. • Do not waste water – reduce use of water. • Do not pollute – affects water supplies. • Restore wetlands – they reduce erosion, encourage wildlife, store and purify water. • Remove alien vegetation – high water consumption. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 101

Unit 3 Water management in South Africa 3.4.4 Role of government in building dams and inter-basin transfers THE ORANGE RIVER PROJECT THE LESOTHO HIGHLANDS WATER PROJECT • Water from the Orange River at the Gariep Dam goes • Africa's largest water transfer scheme. through tunnels and canals to the Sundays River and • Supplies water from Lesotho to Gauteng from a then to the Fish River in the Eastern Cape. system of large dams and tunnels across Lesotho • Provides water for irrigation and urban use in Port and central South Africa. Elizabeth. • The water runs north from the Katse Dam on the • The Gariep and Vanderkloof Dams generate hydro- Orange River into the Vaal River basin. electric power. • The scheme provides hydro-electrical power in • Prevents flooding in the lower Orange River. Lesotho – source of income. • Number of planned phases still to complete. THE BERG RIVER SCHEME THE TUGELA-VAAL SCHEME • Water is transferred from the Theewaterskloof Dam • A pumped storage scheme that supplies water on the Sonderend River to the Berg River (which has from the Tugela to the Vaal Dam. Water is a new dam). pumped through the Drakensberg mountain • Will capture high winter rainfall and store it for the range. dry summer months for Cape Town's urban and in- • Supplies 11 million people, irrigation, house- dustrial use. holds, and industries in Pretoria, Witwatersrand and Vereeniging. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 102

Unit 4 Floods Unit 4 Floods 4.1 Physical causes of floods A flood occurs when a river has more water in it than the river's channel can hold. The water then flows over the banks of the river, onto the adjacent land areas. • High rainfall over a period of days can yield more rainfall than rivers can carry. Excessively heavy rainfall can result in flash floods that uproot trees, move boulders and destroy buildings. • Snow melting – Rapid melting of snow, in countries that have heavy snowfalls, can cause floods. • Relief – Flooding occurs in lowlands where rivers flow more slowly. • Coastal flooding – Occurs at low-lying coastal areas when there are strong onshore winds with high tide. Storm surges of a tropical cyclone or hurricane, or a tsunami also can cause coastal flooding. 4.2 Human causes of flooding • Deforestation and poor farming practices lead to increased soil erosion, reduced infiltration of water and increased surface runoff. • Poor water management – Poorly constructed dams that collapse easily lead to flooding. When dam water is released too quickly, downstream areas are flooded. • Debris – Floating debris like vegetation and ice in water can build up at an obstruction, such as a bridge, and block the flow of water, leading to a river overflowing its banks. • Population pressure and urbanisation – In cities, certain building materials and substances are impermeable – tar, concrete and roofing materials – leading to rapid surface runoff. This increases the risk of a river overflowing its banks. Furthermore, vegetation is removed in cities. Roads destabilize Oxygen given off by vegetation hillsides Evapotranspiration decreases evapotranspiration Small forest Large forest Ranching and overgrazing Trees reduce soil speeds up soil erosion by erosion from rain water and wind and wind Tree roots stabilise Winds remove fertile soil and aid topsoil, farmland is water flow flooded and silted up farmland Gullies and Vegetation release landslides water slowly and reduces flooding Rapid run-off Heavy rain leaches causes flooding nutrients from soil and erodes topsoil Silt from erosion clogs up rivers and dams and causes flooding downstream Forested Hillside After deforestation © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 103

Unit 4 Floods 4.3 Flood hydrographs • A hydrograph is a graph that shows the discharge of a river over a period of time. • Discharge is a measure of the amount of water passing a particular point per second. It is usually measured in cumecs or cubic metres per second. lag 3 Rising limb Storm flow Flooding Discharge (m³/s) occurs at this level 2 1 Base flow 0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 Hours from start of rain Interpretation of the graph above: • More than 24 hours pass before the river drainage reaches a peak. • Lag time is the gap in time between when the greatest amount of rain fell and the time when the greatest amount of water was discharged in the river (highest river level). FACTORS INFLUENCING RIVER DISCHARGE AND FLOODS • When a storm begins, the discharge in the river does not go up imme- Discharge (cumecs) diately. • This is because only a little of the rain falls directly into the river. • The first water to reach the river comes from runoff. • More water is added to the river from throughflow – sometimes called baseflow. It is the movement of water downhill under the ground. Time (hours) • Collectively, this increase in discharge is shown by the rising limb of the graph. Discharge (cumecs) Rivers with short lag times and high discharge are more likely to flood than rivers with a long lag time and low discharge. Floods associated with short lag times and high discharge are usually influenced by: • Drainage basin shape – Water takes longer to reach the mainstream in a narrow river basin than in a large basin. Time (hours) • Steepness of terrain – Steep hills cause water to run off them quickly Discharge (cumecs) and reach the river quickly. Water rises rapidly in a river. See the steep After urbanisation rising limb on the middle hydrograph. • Influence of land use – The landscape surface has an influence on the Before urbanisation shape of the hydrograph. More vegetation absorbs precipitation and allows evaporation to take place into the atmosphere. This reduces the Time (hours) amount of water available for overland flow. Where surfaces are im- © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 104

Unit 4 Floods permeable to water (roads and pavements in urban areas) the amount of runoff into gutters and drains increases rapidly and water flow is quick. 4.4 Flood characteristics and flood management 4.4.1 Flood characteristics • Floods cause the greatest number of weather-related deaths and large-scale damage. • A serious and costly natural disaster, floods damage roads, farmlands and structure. They change people's lives and destroy businesses. • Floods often are followed by water-borne diseases such as cholera (especially when water purification systems are destroyed) and malaria (mosquitoes breed in pools of water). 4.4.2 Flood risk management Assessing the risk of flooding and then taking measures to reduce the threat of flooding. Measures include: • Construction of flood defences. • Creation of flood warning systems. • Development of policies that reduce development in flood areas. 4.4.3 Flood management in rural areas Execute a flood early warning system that: • Forecasts the flood risk (water resource experts meet to plan). • Detects and monitors flooding. • Issues flood warnings. • Team assesses flood situation to analyse information and assess. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 105

Unit 4 Floods 40% evapotranspiration MANAGING FLOODS IN URBAN AREAS • No development on floodplains. • Ensure enough storm water drains that are 10% run-off clear of litter/vegetation. • Establish greenbelts to promote infiltration 25% shallow infiltration and reduce runoff. 25% deep infiltration • Maintain wetlands to absorb extra water and reduce its speed of flow. 30% evapotranspiration • Warn residents of flood occurrences. • Secure food and shelter availability for flood 55% victims. Run-off FLOOD MANAGEMENT IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS 10% shallow • High-risk flood areas (low-lying). infiltration • Forecasting the flood risk. 5% deep infiltration • Detect and monitor flooding. In which sketch is there a higher risk of flooding? • Issue flood warnings. Compare evapotranspiration and infiltration rates • Providing alternative accommodation for flood provided in the sketch to support your answer. victims. • Create awareness of the risk of flooding. © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 106

Topic 4 Water resources Questions Question 1 Refer to source A below and answer the questions that follow, for 28 marks. SOURCE A YOU MAGAZINE JANUARY 2011 The blame for the floods that have wreaked havoc in the southern hemisphere – across South America, South Africa and Australia, and further north in Sri-Lanka and the Philippines – can be laid at the door of a climate condition know as La Nińo. La Nińo is responsible for the erratic weather systems experienced worldwide lately and the recent floods have all the typi- cal characteristics of La Nińa. El Nińo and La Nińa are the result of a natural process that occasionally occurs in the Pacific Ocean. It’s known as the South- ern Oscillation and is nature’s way of trying to balance the equator and South Pole’s water and air temperatures. When ice forms at the South Pole matter suspended in the water, such as plankton, isn’t incorporated. The remaining water gradually becomes more dense and sinks to the bottom of the ocean. The sun heats the seawater at the equator and warm surface water flows southwards while the cold water directly below on the ocean bed flows north, creating a circular effect between the equator and South Pole. The precise cause of La Nińa and El Nińo is still not fully understood. What is known is that La Nińa is the result of excessive cold water welling up; causing unusually cold conditions, while unusually warm water collects on the edge of the Pacific Ocean, resulting in unusually high rainfall. The condensation of the warm surface seawater results in the heavy downpours recently seen in Brazil, Australia and parts of Indonesia for instance. Scientists use satellites and buoys to measure the water temperature and predict or trace La Nińa. A La Nińa system occurs every three to five years and can last up to two years but on average lasts nine to 12 months. The interval between an El Nińo and La Nińa msystem can be anything from a year to 10 years. 1.1 What has been cited as the cause of the recent floods in South Africa and elsewhere on Earth? Providing evidence from the source. (6) 1.2 What is plankton and what valuable role does it play in the ocean? (4) 1.3 In what other ways does the ocean benefit us? (8) 1.4 How does the Benguela current benefit South Africa? (6) 1.5 Explain the terms condensation and flooding. (4) © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 107

Topic 4 Water resources Question 2 Refer to source B below and answer the questions that follow, for 22 marks. SOURCE B 2.1 Describe the devastating effects of flooding on human life, the natural environment, health conditions and the economy of the affected countries. (8) 2.2 Describe an effective flood management strategy in urban, as well as in informal set- tlements. (8) 2.3 Write a short response on how you felt when you read that rescue workers heard muf- fled cries for help from a man who was trapped 4 metres under mud for 16 hours. (6) © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 108

Exam Papers Answers to Questions 1.1 La Nina – A natural process of cold dense water sinking to the bottom of the ocean and moving equator-ward. Excessive water wells up causing cold condi- tions while surface warm water is push up along the edge of the Pacific ocean causing warm air to cool, condense and create rainfall that leads to flooding. (6) 1.2 Plankton provides oxygen and a source of food to all sea life that feeds on it. (4) 1.3 The ocean provides a source of fishing and energy, trade and tourism. In South Africa, we benefit from a multi-million rand fishing industry due to the cold Be- guela current on the west coast; and a world renowned tourist destination – Durban – on the east coast due to the warm Agulhas current. (8) 1.4 Fish harvest comes from oceans with cold currents. South Africa's fishing in- dustry is worth about R2 billion annually. It employs about 30 000 people. A large percentage of our fish comes from the upwelling nutrient-rich waters of the cold Benguela current. The cold nutrient-rich waters of the Benguela current rise up when the south-easterly winds blow the surface water to the north-west. (6) 1.5 Condensation – the change from water vapour to water droplets. Flooding – wa- ter sources (dams, rivers) overflowing. (4) 2.1 Fatalities – Brazil 700 deaths, 100s missing; South Africa – 400 dead, 8 missing. Natural Environment – removal of fertile soil, increased soil erosion from mud- slides, silting of dams. Health – breakout of diseases, malaria, malnutrition, starvation. Economy – loss of infrastructure and agricultural production, mil- lions to billions lost in recreating and rebuilding, affects exports of goods, un- employment increases. (8) 2.2 Managing floods in urban areas (any two): No development on floodplains, en- sure enough storm water drains that are clear of litter/vegetation, establish greenbelts to promote infiltration and reduce runoff, maintain wetlands to ab- sorb extra water and reduce its speed of flow, warn residents of flood occur- rences, secure food and shelter availability for flood victims. (4) Flood management in informal settlements (any two): High risk flood areas (low-lying), forecasting the flood risk, detect and monitor flooding, issue flood warnings, providing alternative accommodation for flood victims, create awareness of the risk of flooding. (4) 2.3 Sad, desperate to rescue him and reunite him with his family, anguish about his isolation from his family and the thought that he could have died had rescue workers not heard him. Finally, relief, that he was heard and rescued. (6) © Via Afrika » G e o g r a p h y G r a d e 1 0 109

1 2 Answer any THREE questions. 1.6 Figure 1.6 shows the chief types of volcanic form. Answer the following questions. 1.6.1 Identify the landforms at A, B, and C. (3×2) (6) SECTION A 1.6.2 Are these landforms intrusive or extrusive forms? Give ONE reason for your answer. (2×2) (4) 1.6.3 Study the intrusions C and D. (a) How do the shapes of C and D differ from one another? QUESTION 1 (b) Give one similarity with regard to landforms C and D. (2×2) (4) 1.6.4 Write an essay in which you explain what positive and negative effects the volcano in the 1.1 Choose the correct term from those given in brackets to make all the statements TRUE. diagram could have on a settlement nearby. (5×2) (10) 1.1.1 The (troposphere / thermosphere) is the most important layer of the atmosphere from a [24] climatic point of view. /100/ 1.1.2 The (thermosphere / stratosphere) is found between the troposphere and the mesosphere. QUESTION 2 1.1.3 A low temperature of −90°C is reached in the (mesosphere / stratosphere). 1.1.4 Carbon dioxide and (water vapour / hydrogen) in the atmosphere is responsible for the 2.1 Define the following: 2.1.1 Relative humidity Question paper 1 absorption of energy. 1.1.5 The ozone layer absorbs the (X-rays / ultraviolet rays) of the sun. (5×2) (10) 2.1.2 Albedo [10] 2.1.3 Saturation point 1.2 Fill in the missing words. 2.1.4 Greenhouse gases 1.2.1 The ongoing process of making, breaking down and remaking of one type of rock into 2.1.5 Constant gases (5×2) (10) another is called the _____ _____. [10] Question paper 1 1.2.2 Pressure and weathering turn igneous rocks into ______ rocks. 2.2 State whether the following statements are true or false. 1.2.3 ______ rocks are formed when magma rises through the crust, cools and crystallises. 2.2.1 Collision margins cause severe earthquakes, but no volcanic eruptions. 1.2.4 Marble is an example of a(n) ______ rock. 2.2.2 The San Andreas Fault in California is an example of a constructive margin. 1.2.5 Sedimentary rock is built up in _____. (5×2) (10) 2.2.3 The Himalayas are being formed at a collision margin. [10] 2.2.4 Continental plates are thicker and made of heavier material than oceanic plates. 1.3 Refer to the synoptic weather map in figure 1.3 and answer the following questions. 2.2.5 Oceanic crust moves towards continental crust at destructive margins. (5×2) (10) 1.3.1 Find TWO characteristics on the synoptic weather map that indicate the weather map is [10] illustrating summer conditions. (2×2) (4) 2.3 Study the advertisement, figure 2.3, regarding coffee and climate change and answer the 1.3.2 You are travelling by yacht (sail boat) from Cape Town to Port Elizabeth. Do you think the questions that follow. wind direction and wind speed is favourable for your voyage? Motivate your answer. 2+(2×2) (6) 2.3.1 Which of the following is the correct latitude of Kilimanjaro? 1.3.3 Compare the temperatures at Maputo and Luderitz. (a) 3° S (a) Which one of the two has the highest temperature? (b) 63° S (b) Account for the difference in temperature. (2×2) (4) (1×2) (2) 1.3.4 Give the following weather conditions at Durban: 2.3.2 If only latitude is taken into account, explain why it is impossible for Kilimanjaro to have (a) Cloud cover an icecap. (1×2) (2) (b) Dew point temperature 2.3.3 Account for the presence of the ice cap on Kilimanjaro. (1×2) (2) (c) Wind speed 2.3.4 Name the TWO gases that are responsible for this vertical change in temperature. (2×2) (4) (d) Temperature (4×1) (4) 2.3.5 Would the north-facing or south-facing slope of Kilimanjaro be warmer? Give ONE reason [18] for your answer. (2×2) (4) 1.4 Study the game in figure 1.4 and answer the following questions. You do not need to 2.3.6 Define global warming. (1×2) (2) know how to play the game to answer the questions. You can get all your answers from figure 1.4. 2.3.7 What is the impact of global warming on the organic coffee farmers on the slopes of Kilimanjaro? (1×2) (2) 1.4.1 Define the concepts in blocks 7 and 15. (2×2) (4) 2.3.8 You are part of the Woolworths campaign to make people aware of the threat of global 1.4.2 Give TWO characteristics of the cloud in block 23. (2×2) (4) warming on Africa. Write a newspaper article entitled ‘Global warming: Africa beware’ in 1.4.3 Which one of the rainfall types in blocks 18 and 21 is found: which you outline the threats of global warming to the continent. (5×2) (10) (a) during winter in the Western Cape? 2.3.9 List TWO ways in which the impact of global warming on Africa can be reduced. (2×2) (2) (b) during summer in the interior of South Africa? (2×2) (4) [30] 1.4.4 Use blocks 2, 9, 22 and 26 as a guide and describe how the type of rainfall in block 18 occurs. (5×2) (10) 2.4 ‘A cloud is a large collection of tiny drops of water or ice crystals.’ Answer the following [22] questions. 1.5 Study Figure 1.5 showing a cross section of a landscape with fault lines. 2.4.1 Explain how clouds are formed. (3×2) (6) 1.5.1 Identify the feature at 1. (1×2) (2) 2.4.2 Give TWO characteristics of stratus clouds. (2×2) (4) 1.5.2 Describe how the feature mentioned in 1.5.1 was formed. (2×2) (4) [10] 1.5.3 Identify the feature at 2. (1×2) (2) 2.5 Study figure 2.5 showing the movement of continents over time and answer the questions 1.5.4 Describe how the feature mentioned in 1.5.3 was formed. (1×2) (2) that follow. 1.5.5 Identify the type of fault at 3. (1×2) (2) 2.5.1 Who can be regarded as the father of the theory of drifting continents? (1×2) (2) 1.5.6 Redraw the type of fault at 3. Add the following labels to your diagram: 2.5.2 Give the name of the one large continent containing A and B in figure 2.5. (1×2) (2) (a) Name the forces involved and add arrows showing the direction of the force 2.5.3 Give the names of the two continents A and B into which the large one has divided. (2×2) (4) (b) Fault plane (2×2) (4) 2.5.4 How does continental drift differ from plate tectonics? (1×2) (2) [16] 2.5.5 Give FIVE pieces of evidence that support the process shown in the diagram. (5×2) (10) [20]

3 4 2.6 Study the information below regarding the Haiti and New Zealand earthquakes and 3.5 The graph in figure 3.5 represents a study regarding population growth done in southern answer the questions that follow. Asia. Answer the following questions. 3.5.1 Why did the region experience a slow natural population increase in 1550? (2×2) (4) Date 12 January 2010 4 September 2010 3.5.2 In which year did the rapid increase in population in southern Asia begin? (2×2) (4) 3.5.3 Why did the population increase rapidly at this time? (3×2) (6) Where Haiti New Zealand 3.5.4 Give TWO problems described on the graph that the region will face if this tendency City Port-au-Prince Christchurch continues after 2010. (2×2) (4) 3.5.5 Why is it important that the region should move from a J-curve to an S-curve of population X 7 7.1 growth? (1×2) (2) Total deaths 220 000 1 of a heart attack 3.5.6 What can be done to manage population growth in the region? (5×2) (10) [30] 2.6.1 What scale was used to compare the intensity of the two earthquakes? (1×2) (2) /100/ 2.6.2 Which earthquake had a slightly stronger intensity? (1×2) (2) QUESTION 4 2.6.3 Name the instrument that was used to measure the seismic waves of the earthquakes. (1×2) (2) 2.6.4 Account for the greater number of deaths in the earthquake in Haiti. (2×2) (4) 4.1 Describe the following population movements: 2.6.5 Explain how these earthquakes could have affected the people of Haiti and New Zealand. (5×2) (10) 4.1.1 Emigration [20] 4.1.2 Internal migration /100/ 4.1.3 Refugee QUESTION 3 4.1.4 Migrant labourer 4.1.5 Forced migration (5×2) (10) 3.1 Choose the correct word in brackets. [10] 3.1.1 (Fertility rate / life expectancy / natural increase) is the number of years that an average 4.2 Indicate whether the following statements are true or false: person may expect to live. 4.2.1 Water is found in five states in the atmosphere. 3.1.2 (Fertility rate / life expectancy / natural increase) is the average number of children a 4.2.2 Oceans are one of the main sources of oxygen. woman will have in her lifetime. 4.2.3 Water covers 45% of the surface of the Earth. 3.1.3 (Fertility rate / life expectancy / natural increase) = Birth rate – Death rate. 4.2.4 Solid ice is found in glaciers. 3.1.4 If the death rate is higher than the birth rate, the growth rate will be (positive / negative / stable). 4.2.5 The same amount of water found today on the Earth was available for the dinosaurs 250 3.1.5 The greater the positive difference in birth and death rate, the (faster / slower) the rate of million years ago. (5×2) (10) population growth. (5×2) (10) [10] [10] 4.3 Figure 4.3 shows people waiting at bus stops in towns A and B. The two population 3.2 Study the demographic transition model in figure 3.2. Which one of the stages 1 to 5 of pyramids in the figure do not necessarily represent the two towns respectively. the demographic cycle is described by the following statements? Write only the stage 4.3.1 Which town has the larger percentage of old people (over 60)? (1×2) (2) number (1, 2, 3, 4 or 5) next to the question number (3.2.1 to 3.2.5). 4.3.2 Which town has the larger percentage of people in the age groups between 15 and 45? (1×2) (2) 3.2.1 Death rate drops, but birth rate remains high 4.3.3 Which town has the larger percentage of children under 15? (1×2) (2) 3.2.2 Slow natural increase 4.3.4 Why would a larger percentage of children be found in the town mentioned in 4.3.3? (1×2) (2) 3.2.3 Both birth and death rates are high 4.3.5 Which of these two towns can expect to face an immediate problem of large population 3.2.4 Brazil is in this stage growth? Substantiate your answer. 2+(2×2) (6) 3.2.5 Low birth and death rates (5×2) (10) 4.3.6 Identify the population pyramid types shown in this figure. Give ONE reason for your [10] answer in each case. (4×2) (8) 3.3 Figure 3.3 represents the distribution of population over the world. Answer the following questions. 4.3.7 Do the pyramids represent the people of the towns standing at the bus stop in each of the 3.3.1 Define population distribution. (1×2) (2) towns A and B? Give TWO reasons for your answer. 2+(2×2) (6) 3.3.2 Why can the population distribution of the world be described as uneven? (1×2) (2) [28] 3.3.3 Why are the regions A, B and C sparsely populated? (3×2) (6) 4.4 Read the article in figure 4.4 and answer the questions that follow. 3.3.4 Would you describe the distribution in the developing world as crowded or sparsely populated? (1×2) (2) 4.4.1 Why are the young people in South Africa dying before their parents? (1×2) (2) 3.3.5 Explain why a dense population distribution is found at D. (3×2) (6) 4.4.2 What, according to Prof. Mokgoba could be the only other explanation for a high death [18] rate among young men and women? (1×2) (2) 3.4 Study figure 3.4 that represents a kind of population movement and answer the questions that follow. 4.4.3 Give THREE ways in which South Africa was influenced negatively by these deaths. (3×2) (6) 3.4.1 Identify the population movement in the diagram. (1×2) (2) 4.4.4 What has been the impact of HIV and AIDS on the population structure in South Africa? (3×2) (6) 3.4.2 Would you regard this movement as forced or voluntary migration? Give ONE reason for 4.4.5 Suggest how this deadly disease can be fought. (5×2) (10) your answer. (2×2) (4) [26] 3.4.3 (a) Define a pull factor. (1×2) 4.5 Study figure 4.5 and answer the questions that follow. (b) Give TWO pull factors in the city on the diagram. (2×2) (2) 4.5.1 Floods occur frequently in the area on the diagram. Define flooding. (1×2) (2) Question paper 1 (4) 4.5.2 (a) At which point, X or Y, would there be a greater risk of flooding? (1×2) (2) 3.4.4 Give TWO push factors experienced by teenagers in the rural areas on the diagram. (2×2) (4) (b) Give TWO physical factors that caused flooding at this point. (2×2) (4) 3.4.5 Give THREE consequences the rural areas will experience if a large number of people leave (c) Give THREE human factors that caused flooding at this point. (3×2) (6) the rural area. (3×2) (6) 4.5.3 Give one way found on the diagram that would reduce flooding in the area. (1×2) (2) 3.4.6 One of the people in the rural area mentions a lack of work in the rural area as a push 4.5.4 What would you do to reduce flooding in the area? (5×2) (10) factor. Write an essay in which you describe the problems this person could experience if [26] he/she decides to move to the city. (5×2) (10) /100/ [32]

1 2 figure 1.3 figure 1.5 1 2 3 Diagrams Question paper 1 F F F F F fault lines figure 1.6 figure 1.4 E D B C A

3 4 figure 2.3 figure 3.2 Stage 1 2 3 4 5? COFFEE & CLIMATE CHANGE High stationary Early expanding Late expanding Low stationary Declining? Kilimanjaro’s melting ice cap is one of the most visible 40 birth rate indicators of global warming in Africa. As the glacier ? melts, there will be less water available to the farmers death rate who grow our organic coffee on its slopes. 30 To raise awareness of the effects of climate change, Birth and we went to the top of Kili, where we made a symbolic death rates (per 1000 20 total popu- natural iced coffee using our organic coffee and water from people per lation increase the glacier. Now you can enjoy the same refreshing year) natural iced coffee (minus the glacier water) right here, made 10 decrease ? with our 100% organic African espresso coffee, exotic spices, ice and cream. ? 0 HAVE A KILIMANJARO ICED COFFEE R16 available from 18 January 2011 for a limited period figure 3.3 For more about our Kilimanjaro Coffee and Climate CE Change Expedition, go to www.woolworths.co.za and follow us on Facebook and Twitter. figure 2.5 Question paper 1

5 6 figure 3.4 figure 3.5 The pull of the city people still poor = no family planning = rapid increase Diagrams Question paper 1 If I = family planning wanted to go to = fewer babies school I would have to walk 15 km to the nearest town! few deaths many babies We slow increase can’t get any fewer deaths work here. It is so boring here. Nothing ever rapid increase happens. If this year’s crop fails, we shall have to move away to the many babies city or starve! Is the doctor going to If our visit our village land is divided many deaths next month or the any more, we will not month after? have enough land to live on. slow increase The push of the country

7 8 figure 4.3 figure 4.5 Natural forest Trees cut down and burnt X Plantations and farms on cleared land Dam Vegetation destroyed by overgrazing Y figure 4.4 Young, gifted and DEAD HORRIBLE TRUTH: In SA young people are dying before their parents THESE shocking graphs show how the of young men and women who are dying in • An estimated R7.2 billion was spent on number of South African men who die our country. educating those of a productive age who before they reach the age of 50 almost This is the first data presented that died of AIDS in 1999–2000; doubled over the past 10 years – an actually gives South Africa a picture of • By 2003 12% of highly skilled workers, increase attributed directly to HIV/AIDS. what is really happening, Makgoba told the 20% of skilled workers and 27.2% of low- The figures, were presented to stunned Sunday Times. skilled workers will be infected. It will members of Thabo Mbeki’s advisory panel The death rate has risen despite better cost an estimated R250 000 to replace on AIDS on Tuesday by the president of access to health care and improvements in each skilled labourer lost. the Medical Research Council, Professor the quality of life of most South Africans in • It will cost the public health system Makgoba. the 10 years since 1990. R16 900 a year to treat each AIDS patient. “A major war would be the only other AIDS deaths are expected to hurt all thing that could explain the high numbers South Africans: Adapted from an article in The Sunday Times. Question paper 1

Question paper 2 SCALE 1:50 000 rir G Py Tat Bes Pt tht lg ihail git “Et ty hi Uys \ EXTRACT FROM 3319 CC FRANSCHHOEK Questions Paper 2

1 2 Study the extract from the 1:50 000 topographic map called 3319 CC Franschhoek. Also study the aerial photograph that covers the whole of the mapped area on a different scale. 1 Locate Franschhoek on a map of South Africa. a In which province is Franschhoek? (1×2) (2) b Which province has this province as its southern neighbour? (1×2) (2) 2 Map skills using the 1:50 000 topographical map: a Express the scale of 1:50 000 in words. (1×2) (2) b Which has the larger scale, the topographic map or the aerial photograph? (1×2) (2) c State the latitude of spot height 1406 (D2). (1×2) (2) d State the longitude of Jan Joubertsgat Bridge (B5). (1×2) (2) e The rivers in E4 flow mainly towards the ___. A north-west; B south-east; C south-west; D north-east (1×2) (2) f Give TWO pieces of evidence that show that the road numbered R45 (from E7 to A5) is a very old road. (2×2) (4) 3 Map skills using the aerial photograph and topographical map: a State whether this aerial photograph is oblique or vertical. (1×2) (2) b What is the name of the river marked 1 on the aerial photograph? (1×2) (2) c What is the name given to the feature marked 2 – 2 on the aerial photograph. (1×2) (2) d The feature marked 2 is a _____. A convex slope, B concave slope, C saddle, D ridge (1×2) (2) 4 The names ‘Hottentot’ (Hottentots-Holland Nature Reserve in C2 and C3) and ‘Bushman’ (Bushman’s Teeth in D2) were the names given to original inhabitants of the area but are now considered to be unacceptable. Suggest new names for these two features. (2×2) (4) 5 It has been suggested that the area north-east of the Theewaterskloof Dam in D5 should be turned into a fruit farming area. It is estimated that this could provide jobs for over 200 disadvantaged people. The money could be provided by the state. a List THREE GIS layers that the planners would have to use when carrying out the survey. (3×2) (6) b Explain fully why people will have different opinions about whether this scheme should go ahead. (4×2) (8) 6 The Theewaterskloof Dam is part of an inter-basin water transfer scheme. a What is meant by the term inter-basin transfer? (2×2) (4) b What map evidence is there of an inter-basin transfer scheme in the area? (1×2) (2) 7 Give ONE of each of the following types of symbols found in block D5 a Point b Line c Area(polygon) (3×2) (6) 8 Which of the blocks B3 and A2 is: a Sparsely populated b Densely populated Give a reason for your answer in each case. (4×2) (8) 9 Why can snow be expected in block D1 during winter? (1×2) (2) 10 In the Southern Hemisphere, the sun always shines from a northerly direction. Explain why it will be cooler on the hiking trail in block C2 than in Block D3. (2×2) (4) Questions Paper 2

Answer Papers 1 and 2 /100/ Paper 1 QUESTION 2 2.1 QUESTION 1 2.1.1 The percentage of water vapour in the air relative to the amount of water vapour that would be present in the air if the air were saturated at the same 1.1 temperature ✓✓ 1.1.1 Troposphere✓✓ 2.1.2 The reflective capability of a surface✓✓ 1.1.2 Stratosphere✓✓ 2.1.3 The point at which no more water can be absorbed✓✓ 1.1.3 Mesosphere✓✓ 2.1.4 Gases that absorb radiation and contribute to the heating of the atmosphere✓✓ 1.1.4 Water vapour✓✓ 2.1.5 Atmospheric gases that have stable concentrations✓✓ (5×2) (10) 1.1.5 Ultraviolet rays✓✓ (5×2) (10) [10] [10] 2.2 1.2 2.2.1 True✓✓ 1.2.1 Rock cycle✓✓ 2.2.2 False✓✓ 1.2.2 Metamorphic✓✓ 2.2.3 True✓✓ 1.2.3 Igneous✓✓ 2.2.4 False✓✓ 1.2.4 Metamorphic✓✓ 2.2.5 True✓✓ (5×2) (10) 1.2.5 Layers✓✓ (5×2) (10) [10] [10] 2.3 1.3 2.3.1 (a) ✓✓ (1×2) (2) 1.3.1 High temperatures✓✓ Tropical cyclone Eline✓✓ 2.3.2 Too close to equator✓✓ (1×2) (2) High cloud cover over the interior✓✓ (Any TWO) (2×2) (4) 2.3.3 Very high✓✓ (1×2) (2) 1.3.2 Yes✓✓ Wind from west to south-west✓✓ Wind speed at least 20 knots✓✓ 2.3.4 Water vapour ✓✓ Carbon dioxide✓✓ (2×2) (4) 1.3.3 (a) Maputo✓✓ 2.3.5 North facing✓✓ in Southern Hemisphere✓✓ (2×2) (4) (b) Warm current✓✓ (2×2) (4) 2.3.6 Global warming is the process by which world temperatures are rising. ✓✓ (1×2) (2) 1.3.4 (a) ¼✓ 2.3.7 Global warming melts the glacier, with the result that there is less water (b) 23 °C✓ available for the farmers. ✓✓ (1×2) (2) (c) 15 knots✓ 2.3.8 Rise in sea levels✓✓ Droughts✓✓ Heat waves✓✓ Strong tropical storms✓✓ (d) 29 °C✓ (4×1) (4) Landslides✓✓ Desertification✓✓ Floods✓✓ Melting Kilimanjaro ice cap✓✓ [18] Threat to coral reefs✓✓ (any FIVE) (5×2) (10) 1.4 2.3.9 Maintain food security ✓✓ Protect environment ✓✓Recycle and reuse✓✓ 1.4.1 Condensation: The physical process in which a vapour becomes a liquid✓✓ Use fuel-efficient cars ✓✓ Use public transport✓✓ Plant trees✓✓ Educate✓✓ Precipitation: Water particles, liquid or solid, that fall down through the (Any TWO, accept other reasonable answers) (2×2) (2) atmosphere and reach the surface of the Earth✓✓ (2×2) (4) [30] 1.4.2 Thunder✓✓ Lightning✓✓ Dark grey✓✓ Rain✓✓ (Any TWO) (2×2) (4) 2.4 1.4.3 (a) 21✓✓ 2.4.1 Warm air rises✓✓, condensation occurs✓✓, tiny drops of water form✓✓ (b) 18✓✓ (2×2) (4) creating a visible cloud✓✓. (Any THREE) (3×2) (6) 1.4.4 Water evaporates✓✓ creating water vapour. Rising air currents carry 2.4.2 Flat and hazy✓✓ Low altitude✓✓ Dark grey to nearly white✓✓ May produce the water vapour upwards✓✓. Strong updraughts result in cooling✓✓. light drizzle✓✓ (2×2) (4) Cumulonimbus clouds form✓✓. Convectional rain occurs with rain, thunder [10] and lightning✓✓. (5×2) (10) 2.5 [22] 2.5.1 Alfred Wegener✓✓ (1×2) (2) 1.5 2.5.2 Pangaea✓✓ (1×2) (2) 1.5.1 Horst✓✓ (1×2) (2) 2.5.3 A Eurasia ✓✓ B Gondwanaland✓✓ (2×2) (4) 1.5.2 A horst is formed by forces of compression✓✓ in which blocks are pushed 2.5.4 Continental drift: Continents drifting apart together and the centre part between roughly parallel faults rises to form a Plate tectonics: More accurate description; plates cause continents to move✓✓ (1×2) (2) mountain✓✓. (2×2) (4) 2.5.5 The east coast of South America and the west coast of Africa match well 1.5.3 Rift valley✓✓ (1×2) (2) especially below sea level✓✓. The plant and animal life of these two 1.5.4 A rift valley is formed by forces of tension✓✓ in which blocks are pulled continents is very similar✓✓. Glacial deposits in Brazil match those in West apart and the centre part between roughly parallel faults drops down to form Africa✓✓. Identical fossil remains have been found in Africa, India and a valley✓✓. (1×2) (2) Antarctica.✓✓ Rock formations match up across the coastlines of South 1.5.5 Normal fault✓✓ (1×2) (2) Africa and South America✓✓. Antarctica has coal deposits from a plant 1.5.6 called Glossopteris. Identical deposits have been found in South America, Fault plane✓✓ Africa, India and Australia. ✓✓ (Any FIVE) (5×2) (10) [20] 2.6 2.6.1 Richter scale✓✓ (1×2) (2) 2.6.2 Christchurch✓✓ (1×2) (2) 2.6.3 Seismograph✓✓ (1×2) (2) 2.6.4 No early warning system in Haiti✓✓. Better medical services in New Tension✓✓ Zealand✓✓. (2×2) (4) 2.6.5 People may be injured or killed✓✓. Buildings may be damaged or collapse✓✓. (2×2) (4) Electricity, gas and water supplies may be disrupted✓✓. Water pipes may [16] break✓✓. Dam walls may break and cause landslides and mudslides✓✓. 1.6 There may be a shortage of fresh drinking water✓✓, food and medical 1.6.1 A Batholith✓✓ supplies✓✓. Industries may be forced to close✓✓. Disease may break out✓✓. B Sill ✓✓ Tsunamis may hit the land✓✓. (Any FIVE) (5×2) (10) C Lopolith✓✓ (3×2) (6) [20] 1.6.2 Intrusive✓✓ Formed below the surface of the Earth✓✓ (2×2) (4) /100/ 1.6.3 (a) C is saucer-shaped and D is mushroom-shaped✓✓ (b) Both are connected to a magma source by means of a pipe✓✓ (2×2) (4) 1.6.4 Positive: Tourist attraction✓✓ Diamonds in volcanic pipes✓✓ Fertile soil✓✓ Hot springs (from very hot underground water)✓✓ Electricity generated from very hot underground water✓✓ Negative: People killed✓✓ Possessions destroyed✓✓ Water polluted✓✓ Toxic gases given off✓✓ Buildings damaged or destroyed✓✓ (At least TWO of both Positive and Negative) (5×2) (10) [24] Answers Paper 1 and 2

QUESTION 3 4.3.5 Town B✓✓ More people in the age group 20–35✓✓ Their children will have children of 3.1 their own soon✓✓ 2+(2×2) (6) 3.1.1 Life expectancy✓✓ 4.3.6 A: Triangular✓✓ Broad base, gets narrow towards the top✓✓ 3.1.2 Fertility rate✓✓ B: Bell-shaped ✓✓ Narrow base✓✓ (4×2) (8) 3.1.3 Rate of natural increase ✓✓ 4.3.7 No✓✓ 3.1.4 Negative✓✓ The triangular pyramid fits town B✓✓ 3.1.5 Faster✓✓ (5×2) (10) The bell-shaped pyramid fits town A✓✓ 2+(2×2) (6) [10] [28] 3.2 4.4 3.2.1 2✓✓ 4.4.1 Because of HIV and AIDS✓✓ (1×2) (2) 3.2.2 1 or 4 ✓✓ 4.4.2 War✓✓ (1×2) (2) 3.2.3 1✓✓ 4.4.3 R7,2 billion was spent on educating those who have died✓✓. It will cost 3.2.4 3✓✓ R250 000 to replace each skilled labourer lost✓✓. It costs the public health 3.2.5 4 or 5 ✓✓ (5×2) (10) system R16 000 a year to treat each patient✓✓. (3×2) (6) [10] 4.4.4 Millions of adults have died✓✓ Children have died✓✓ Life expectancy has 3.3 dropped✓✓ (3×2) (6) 3.3.1 The location of people in a geographical area✓✓ (1×2) (2) 4.4.5 Education✓✓Abstinence of young people✓✓ Use of Condoms✓✓ Being 3.3.2 Not the same density everywhere✓✓ (1×2) (2) faithful to your partner✓✓ Use of anti-retroviral medicines✓✓ Better 3.3.3 A Tropical regions✓✓ medical facilities✓✓ Advertising campaigns✓✓ Knowing one’s HIV B Cold regions✓✓ status✓✓ Policies linked to schools and workplaces✓✓ (Any FIVE; accept C Warm dry regions✓✓ (3×2) (6) other reasonable answers) (5×2) (10) 3.3.4 Crowded✓✓ (1×2) (2) [26] 3.3.5 Large urban area✓✓ Industries✓✓ Lots of employment✓✓ (3×2) (6) 4.5 [18] 4.5.1 When a river overflows its banks or the sea overflows the coastline because 3.4 of storms or tsunamis✓✓ (1×2) (2) 3.4.1 Rural-urban migration✓✓ (1×2) (2) 4.5.2 (a) Y✓✓ (1×2) (2) 3.4.2 Forced✓✓ when push factors are involved✓✓ OR (b) Many tributaries have joined✓✓ Floodplain✓✓ (2×2) (4) Voluntary✓✓ when pull factors are involved (2×2) (4) (c) Trees cut down✓✓ Plantations and farms on cleared land✓✓ 3.4.3 (a) Factors that attract people to the city✓✓ (1×2) (2) Vegetation destroyed by overgrazing✓✓ (3×2) (6) (b) Better work in buildings shown✓✓ Entertainment in cinema, hotel✓✓ 4.5.3 The dam✓✓ (1×2) (2) Education – high school and university✓✓ Medical services – 4.5.4 Build dams✓✓ Conserve wetlands✓✓ Build channels✓✓ hospital✓✓ Recreation – soccer✓✓ Re-introduce vegetation✓✓ Divert water from settlements✓✓ Reinforce (Any TWO. NB: ‘Buildings’ alone not accepted) (2×2) (4) banks✓✓ Prevent settlements below flood line✓✓ 3.4.4 School far from home✓✓ Boring✓✓ (2×2) (4) (Any FIVE; accept reasonable answers) (5×2) (10) 3.4.5 Older people left to do the hard work✓✓ Lack of hope and initiative✓✓ Farms become neglected and abandoned✓✓ Decrease in productivity in [26] primary sector✓✓Schools close✓✓ Shops close✓✓ (Any THREE) (3×2) (6) /100/ 3.4.6 Shortage of jobs✓✓ Crime✓✓ Drugs✓✓ Prostitution✓✓ Shortage of Paper 2 housing✓✓ Land and noise pollution✓✓ Disease✓✓ Congestion✓✓ (Any FIVE; accept other reasonable answers) (5×2) (10) 1 a Western Cape ✓✓ (2) [32] b Northern Cape ✓✓ (2) 3.5 2 a One centimetre on the map represents 500 m (or half a kilometre) on the 3.5.1 Very poor farmers✓✓ Many deaths✓✓ (2×2) (4) ground, or two centimetres on the map represent 1 000 m (or 1 km) on the 3.5.2 Accept 1800–1850✓✓ (2×2) (4) ground. ✓✓ (2) 3.5.3 Healthier families✓✓ Many babies✓✓ Fewer deaths✓✓ (3×2) (6) b The topographic map has the larger scale. ✓✓ (2) 3.5.4 Poverty✓✓ Famine✓✓ Starvation✓✓ (Any TWO) (2×2) (4) c 33°58'05''S ✓✓ (2) 3.5.5 Could lead to wealth✓✓ (1×2) (2) d 19°09'40''E (allow about 5'' either way for the latitude and longitude) ✓✓ (2) 3.5.6 Family planning✓✓ Educate people✓✓ Government policies✓✓ Limit e B: south-east ✓✓ (2) families to one child ✓✓Later marriages✓✓ Sterilisation✓✓ Abortion✓✓ f Any two of: Jan Joubertsgat Bridge 1823; Die Ou Tol; Catspad 1819. (Do not (Any FIVE; accept other reasonable answers) (5×2) (10) accept bendy/curvy road.) ✓✓ (2) [30] 3 a Vertical ✓✓ (2) /100/ b Bierrivier ✓✓ (2) c Bushman’s Teeth ✓✓ (2) QUESTION 4 d D: ridge ✓✓ (2) 4 Any acceptable names ✓✓ (4) 4.1 5 a Any three of: soils; rainfall; geology; relief; vegetation; communication 4.1.1 The movement of people in which they leave their home country in order to routes; dam position; plus other acceptable themes (6) settle down and work in another country✓✓ b Points for: provide jobs; bring money to the area; roads will be built; 4.1.2 The movement of people within a country✓✓ housing will be provided (2×2) (4) 4.1.3 People who have been forced to leave their home country for fear of persecution✓✓ Points against: part of the area is in a nature reserve; most is in a wetland; 4.1.4 A person who moves for employment reasons✓✓ agricultural chemicals will pollute the dam; the high water table could 4.1.5 Migration against a person’s will as a result of circumstances beyond that flood the crops (2×2) (4) person’s control✓✓ (5×2) (10) 6 a In an inter-basin transfer scheme, water is taken from one drainage basin [10] which has an excess of water ✓✓ to another basin where there is a greater 4.2 need for water. ✓✓ (4) 4.2.1 False✓✓ 6 b Any one of: underground pipeline (E4, E5) or Franschhoek tunnel (D3 to C1). (2) 4.2.2 True✓✓ 7 a Spot height or ✓✓ 4.2.3 False✓✓ b Non-perennial river or arterial road or row of trees or nature reserve boundary✓✓ 4.2.4 True✓✓ c Marsh or Diggings or Hottentots Holland Nature Reserve✓✓ (3×2) (6) 4.2.5 True✓✓ (5×2) (10) 8 a B3✓✓ Steep slopes✓✓ [10] b A2✓✓ Valley ✓✓ (4×2) (8) 4.3 9 Very high or Altitude✓✓ (1×2) (2) 4.3.1 Town A✓✓ (1×2) (2) 10 On southern side of mountain✓✓ Sun’s rays blocked by mountain✓✓ (2×2) (4) 4.3.2 Town B✓✓ (1×2) (2) 4.3.3 Town B✓✓ (1×2) (2) 4.3.4 More younger adults in Town B✓✓ (1×2) (2) Answers Paper 1 and 2