Gr11 History Study Guide LR

Via Afrika History Grade 11 Teacher’s Guide Grade 11 Guide We prepare our learners holistically for the world. — Nomangesi Peppetta, Teacher Via Afrika understands, values and supports your role as a teacher. You have the most important job in education, and we Via Afrika History realise that your responsibilities involve far more than just teaching. We have done our utmost to save you time and make your life easier, and we are very proud to be able to help you teach this subject successfully. Here are just some of the things we have done to assist you in this brand-new course: 1. The series was written to be aligned with CAPS. See page 9 to see how CAPS requirements are met. 2. A possible teaching plan has been included. See page 4 and 5 to see how much time this could save you. 3. Each topic starts with an overview of what is taught, and the resources you need. See page 3 to find out how this will help with your planning. 4. There is advice on pace-setting to assist you in completing all the work for the year on time. Page 22 shows you how this is done. 5. Advice on how to introduce concepts and scaffold learning is given for every topic. See page 25 for an example. 6. All the answers have been given to save you time doing the exercises yourself. See page 27 for an example. 7. Also included is a CD filled with resources to assist you in your teaching and assessment. See the inside front cover. The accompanying Learner’s Book is written in accessible language and contains all the content your learners need to master. The exciting design and layout will keep their interest and make teaching a pleasure for you. We would love to hear your feedback. Why not tell us how it’s going by emailing us at history@viaafrika.com? Alternatively, visit our teacher forum at www.viaafrika.com. Language: English ISBN: 978-1-415-43699-8 9 78 1 4 1 5 436998 www.viaafrika.com

Sue Grové Study Guide Via Afrika History Grade 11 ISBN: 978-1-41546-324-6

Contents Introduction to History Grade 11 ........................................................................................................................................................ 1 Topic 1 Communism in Russia 1900 to 1940 ......................................................................................................................2 unit 1 Issues and events leading to the 1917 Revolutions ........................................................................................3 unit 2 February and October Revolutions of 1917 ..............................................................................................................9 unit 3 Civil war and War Communism ..................................................................................................................................... 22 unit 4 Russia under Stalin ................................................................................................................................................................... 29 summary and questions ..........................................................................................................................................................................37 Topic 2 Capitalism in the USA 1900 to 1940 ................................................................................................................... 43 unit 1 The nature of capitalism in the USA ........................................................................................................................ 44 unit 2 The Wall Street crash of 1929 ........................................................................................................................................... 55 unit 3 The New Deal ...................................................................................................................................................................................59 unit 4 The impact of the Second World War ..................................................................................................................... 67 summary and questions ..........................................................................................................................................................................73 Topic 3 Ideas of race in the late 19th and 20th centuries ................................................................................77 unit 1Theories and practice of race........................................................................................................................................... 78 case study 1 Australia and the indigenous Australians................................................................... 83 case study 2 Nazi Germany and the holocaust ........................................................................................ 87 summary and questions ..........................................................................................................................................................................95 Topic 4 Nationalisms – South Africa, the Middle East and Africa ...........................................................................................................................................101 unit 1 What is nationalism? .............................................................................................................................................................102 case study 1 South Africa ............................................................................................................................................ 107 case study 1a The rise of African nationalism ............................................................................................109 case study 1b The rise of Afrikaner nationalism ...................................................................................... 123 case study 2 The Middle East................................................................................................................................... 135 case study 3 From ‘Gold Coast’ to Ghana .....................................................................................................149 unit 2 The positive and negative features of nationalism ................................................................................... 156 summary and questions ....................................................................................................................................................................... 158

Topic 5 Apartheid South Africa: 1940s to 1960s ..................................................................................................... 165 unit 1 Racism and segregation in the 1920s and 1930s ..........................................................................................166 unit 2 Segregation after the formation of the Union ............................................................................................... 168 unit 3 The National Party victory in 1948 ........................................................................................................................... 170 unit 4 Legalising apartheid .............................................................................................................................................................. 173 unit 5 Overcoming apartheid.......................................................................................................................................................... 177 unit 6 Global resistance to racism and oppression....................................................................................................183 unit 7 The apartheid state’s response to resistance against apartheid ...................................................................................................................................................................... 185 unit 8 Impact of the Sharpeville massacre ........................................................................................................................ 187 unit 9 The Rivonia Trial and its consequences ..............................................................................................................189 unit 10 Apartheid becomes an international word .......................................................................................................190 summary and questions ........................................................................................................................................................................191 Answers to questions ....................................................................................... 195 Exam Papers ....................................................................................................214 Answers to Exam Papers ................................................................................... 231

Introduction to History Grade 11 Who are you? Why are you here? Where are you going? How will you get there? These are some of the questions that History can help you to answer. From studying the past, we can learn how to live in the present. We can see what mistakes were made and we can avoid repeating them in the future. By studying these mistakes made in the past, as well as many correct and courageous decisions, we can understand why our world is like it is today. History is the study of people: famous people, notorious people and ordinary people, and how their decisions and actions shaped the future. Studying these people can inspire us to take a more active role in shaping our world and striving to achieve our individual potential. History is an exciting and dynamic subject. Studying History can help you to understand and speak intelligently about what is happening in the world. History is full of details, such as events, dates and names of people and places. However, when you study History, don’t worry about getting overwhelmed by all the details. Try to see the importance of the bigger picture. To do well in History, here are some strategies that you can use: ● Listen carefully in class. ● Ask your teacher questions until you understand what is going on. ● Go over the work you did in class that day. ● Do your own extra research on the topic you are studying. ● Never leave your studying to the day before a test or exam. ● Make your own mind-maps and summaries. ● Never study without talking to yourself and giving yourself short tests. In Grade 11 the key question you must investigate and answers is: How do the concepts imperialism, capitalism, communism, racism and nationalism define the century 1850 to 1950? © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 1

1 Topic XX Unit Communism in Russia 1900 to 1940 Key question for Topic 1: How was communism applied in Russia under Lenin and Stalin? UNIT 1 Page 3 • What is communism? • The writings of Karl Marx Issues and events • What led to the 1905 Revolution? leading to the 1917 • What was the link between the 1905 and 1917 Revolutions Revolutions? UNIT 2 Page 9 • The causes and outcomes of the February and The February October 1917 Revolutions and October 1917 • Failure of the Provisional Government Revolutions • Lenin’s return TOPIC 1 Page 2–42 Communism in Russia 1900 to 1940 • Civil war and War Communism UNIT 3 Page 22 • Lenin’s seizure of control • Lenin’s interpretation of Marxism Civil war and War • Why was the New Economic Policy introduced? Communism • Women in the Russian Revolution • Lenin’s death • Stalin’s interpretation of Marxism-Leninism UNIT 4 Page 29 • Collectivisation and industrialisation in the USSR • Political terror in Russia in the 1930s Russia under Stalin • The eﬀect of Stalin’s policies on the Soviet people • Women in the USSR under Stalin • The Second World War 2 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

1X Topic XX Unit Issues and events leading to the 1917 Revolutions Key question: What were the issues and events that led to the 1917 Revolutions? 1 What is communism? After the industrialisation of societies in Europe by the 19th century, ideas about equality among people became known as socialism or communism. They are based on two main principles: ● goods and services produced in an economy should be owned publicly ● goods and services should be controlled and planned by a centralised organisation. Socialism Communism ● economic and political system ● kind of socialism where the use of property and ● there should not be social classes capital (money) is used for the or states common good ● all people should own all tools, ● the wealth of a society should be factories and farms that are used shared, and everyone in it must to produce goods and food have everything they need ● known as common or collective ● socialists believe that the ownership collective interests of the whole ● no private property society are more important than ● in principle, workers take control individual interests of factories and businesses ● the word socialism was first used and manage the economy in Britain in the 1820s democratically ● acquired a modern meaning only in 1918 after Lenin named his party as Communist © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 3

Unit 1 XX 2 The writings of Karl Marx Communist Manifesto (1848) Das Kapital (Capital) (1867) ● outlined a number of steps that ● critical analysis of capitalism they believed a society would ● minority of people who are wealthy experience as workers rose up and a majority who are poor against the capitalist system ● → constant class conflict and ● this would come gradually through struggle the ‘law of history’ ● middle class or bourgeoisie own ‘the means of production’ (the land and the factories) ● working class (the proletariat) sell their labour ● bourgeoisie exploit the proletariat by underpaying them → bourgeoisie thereby increase own wealth Karl Marx was born in Germany (then known as the Kingdom of Prussia in the German Confederation) in 1818. Marx’s theory was that societies would inevitably move from a democracy towards socialism, and then to a further, final stage of communism. This would involve a constant class struggle in which: revolution would end in the triumph workers rise up against the of the working class after which all capitalists and bourgeoisie class divisions would disappear in the new society everyone would be treated equally However, some socialists were impatient and believed that capitalism would only be overthrown by violent revolution. ● Lenin was one of those who believed in violent revolution led by a small group of trained revolutionaries. ● In October 1917 Russia became the first country to set up a state based on Marxist principles. 4 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 1 3 What were the issues that led to the 1905 Revolution? 19th century → Russia = empire led by an autocratic ruler called a Tsar: ● multi-national empire ● ethnic Russians only about 45% of the population ● largely agricultural society ● majority of people, the peasants and serfs, living in the countryside in poor conditions. ● Until 1861, serfs: ● did not have freedom of movement ● were forced to work on the lands of the great landowners ● had the status of peasants. In 1861, Tsar Alexander II emancipated (freed) the serfs on private estates as well as the domestic serfs and they were granted the full rights of free citizens. ● The landowners were forced to give their serfs a piece of land. ● The emancipation of the serfs enabled them to travel to towns and cities and to sell their labour in the growing industrial sector. ● However: still little political representation of the people: Zemstvo – local government ● elected by townspeople, peasant villagers and noble landowners ● dealt with local problems ● dominated by traditional bureaucracy and the local nobility ● ordinary people had very little power Under Tsar Alexander II political activity increased with people demanding the introduction of a constitution and a parliament: 1861: Russian After 1860: Russia underwent 1881: Tsar Alexander Social- a process of rapid industrialisa- II assassinated. New Democratic Party tion (rapid growth of the working Tsar, Alexander III, was formed class population in the cities, put a stop to the (later called particularly in Moscow and St political reforms communists) Petersburg) By 1900: Russia had the highest in- 1890s: industrial development and dustrial growth rate in Europe (with growth of a class of modern factory two million industrial workers). workers encouraged the spread of Workers lived and worked in very Marxist ideas poor conditions © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 5

Unit 1 XX Russia was determined to expand its territory. ● By 1903, had managed to establish a sphere of influence in Chinese Manchuria. ● Next target was Korea. ● Japan did not want any further Russian expansion in the region and protested: ● Russia ignored the Japanese protests ● Japan launched a surprise attack in February 1904 ● Russians suﬀered a humiliating defeat by the Japanese ● Military defeat led to political unrest in Russia. Business and professional classes wanted political reforms, which would turn Russia into a liberal democracy ● factory workers felt economically exploited and had become unionised ● peasants had not gained much from the economic reforms and continued to live in poverty ● by 1900, intellectuals among the subject nationalities, in particular Poland and the Ukraine, were calling for self-rule. 1903 October 1905 Summer of 1905 ● Lenin’s demands ● Strikes and peasant ● General strike for a small, uprisings paralysed the disciplined, elitist ● revolts among country party split the the minority ● → government group nationalities and was forced to ● Lenin’s supporters ● mutinies amongst give in to the = Bolsheviks troops in the army people (minority) ● = had spread ● Opposers throughout the = Mensheviks country (majority) ● Social Democrats Discontent broke out into revolution in February 1905 now began (army fighting Japan in Manchuria): organising unions and strikes and Revolution demanding • massive demonstration of workers democratic reforms moved peacefully towards the Winter Palace in St Petersburg to present a petition to the Tsar (Nicholas II) Massacre Protest • as they drew closer to the • trade unionist priest, Father Georgii Gapon, who palace, the troops opened was actually working for the secret police, led fire, killing and wounding the workers – but Tsar Nicholas had fled the city hundreds of workers 6 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 1 This day became known as Bloody Sunday. ● The massacre turned workers against the Tsar → anger spread throughout Russia. ● The Russian Marxists formed the Social-Democratic Labour Party. ● The Tsar issued the October Manifesto, granting civil rights and promising to set up a Duma (parliament) elected by the people. ● promised that the Duma would have real power to pass laws ● October Manifesto accepted by liberals (Octoberists) but rejected by Social Democrats → Social Democrats wanted socialist revolution. December 1905 – Social Democrats led a workers’ uprising in Moscow. This frightened the middle class, which helped the government to suppress the uprising. Duma ● held its first meeting in May 1906 ● great disappointment to those who had expected real political change ● government issued a new constitution, the Fundamental Laws ● Tsar continued to have most of the power ● Duma and an appointed upper house could debate and pass laws, but Tsar had an absolute veto on all laws passed ● Tsar appointed the government ministers Twice the Tsar dismissed the Duma – and twice more radical representatives were elected to the Duma. ● The Tsar then rewrote the electoral laws to ensure the propertied classes dominated the Duma. ● This ensured greater support for the Tsar and his ministers. 4 What was the link between the 1905 and 1917 Revolutions? ● 1905 Revolution helped Marxist revolutionaries develop their political theory and improve their organising skills. ● Lenin, one of the leaders in 1917, was Leon Trotsky in exile in 1905 ● helped set up the Soviet of Workers ● watched the events and adapted Deputies in St Petersburg his own revolutionary theory. ● was elected onto its executive council ● Leon Trotsky – a Menshevik, who ● later elected the chairperson with Lenin was to lead the 1917 ● after uprising he was arrested and revolution sentenced to internal exile ● = took an active part in the events ● eventually escaped to Vienna, Austria of 1905. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 7

Unit 1 XX Soviet of Workers’ Deputies ● made the day-to-day decisions for the Soviet ● end of October 1905, the St Petersburg Soviet had taken over many of the functions of local government ● soviets were set up Although the St Petersburg Soviet was to play an important role in the events of 1917, the 1905 uprising was eventually suppressed in December 1905. ● Trotsky and the other leaders of the Soviet were arrested, imprisoned and brought to trial on 19 September 1906. 4.1 What had the Social Democrats learned from the events of 1905? ● Importance of mass strikes and workers’ councils (Soviets) as representative of the workers as a whole, rather than of political groupings. ● Revised their theory of revolution: a socialist revolution would be possible in a backward country such as Russia, which did not have a large urbanised working class. ● Trotsky: theory of Permanent Revolution. Before and after 1905 Before 1905 After 1905 ● Most Marxist revolutionaries ● Recognition that they could go in Russia believed that they straight to a workers’ revolution. were fighting for a democratic ● Once in power, the workers government under a capitalist would carry out the democratic economy measures to free all peasants. ● → Introduce socialist, anti- capitalist measures to meet the needs of the workers 8 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

X 12 Topic XX Unit February and October Revolutions of 1917 Key question: What were the causes of the February and October Revolutions of 1917? Note on dates ● Russia was using the old Julian calendar in 1917, whereas the West was using the newer Gregorian calendar. ● The two calendars diﬀered by several days. ● This is why you will often see two months given for the 1917 Revolutions: February/March and October/November. ● Russia’s dates were behind the West. ● Russia changed in 1918. When Soviet Russia undertook its calendar reform in February 1918, they moved from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian. ● This move resulted in a loss of 13 days, so that 31 January 1918 was immediately followed by 14 February 1918. 1 What were the causes of the February and October Revolutions of 1917? Overview ● 1917 revolution ended Russian monarchy and brought first socialist state. ● February/March revolution was not planned ● → it developed out of violent riots on the streets of St Petersburg ● it removed Tsar Nicholas from power ● = democratic revolution which introduced democratic reforms. ● October/November revolution (Bolshevik revolution) ● = was planned and executed by a group of revolutionaries. ● In 1918 they abandoned democracy ● → declared themselves the representatives of a dictatorship of the proletariat. ● 1914 → First World War broke out ● Tsar Nicholas II vowed to fight the enemy ● = surge of patriotism. ● St Petersburg renamed Petrograd ● despite this, Russian army = poorly equipped ● → suﬀered greatly in battle. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 9

Unit 12 XX 1.1 What were the political causes of the February and October Revolutions of 1917? After ● Tsar (Nicholas II) was reluctant to introduce any real political reforms the 1905 ● Stolypin = the Prime Minister from 1906 to 1911: Revolution ● he was repressive Stolypin persecuted Jews, treated protesters harshly and exiled political activists, such as Lenin. ● Growing discontent among workers. ● Crowding in working class areas made spread of revolutionary ideas easier. ● Strikes illegal ● secret meetings organised. ● Protests grew more violent as people grew more dissatisfied. Prime minister Stolypin assassinated in September 1911. 1.1.1 Political causes Poland Russia made Lithuania up of smaller Finland nations/states Latvia Result: ● growing discontent ● rise of nationalism ● nationalists demanded change in government ● → but brutally put down by the Tsar. 10 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 12 XX Government rejected Duma’s demands Tsar Nicholas II had complete control but fought war Educated people ineﬃciently and Duma became critical of Tsar Political leadership = major problem Tsar refused to share power Tsar rejected moder- ate Duma and relied on old bureaucracy In September 1915 a number of political parties formed the Progressive Bloc ● → called for a completely new government responsible to the Duma instead of the Tsar. BUT ● Tsar temporarily suspended the Duma: ● announced that he was going to the lead the Russian armies himself. ● = A fatal decision that would lead to the fall of the Tsar. 1.1.2 What role did Tsarina Alexandra and Rasputin play? Tsar Nicholas II joined the Russian troops and his wife, Tsarina Alexandra, took over control. ● strong-willed ● hated parliaments ● unpopular with Russian people ● had urged husband to rule absolutely ● tried to do the same in his absence BUT ● unable to rule eﬀectively ● dismissed or reappointed prime ministers, angering the Duma ● was under the influence of Rasputin, a peasant/monk ● Rasputin pretended to be able to control Alexei Ramanov’s haemophilia (Alexei was the Tsarina’s son) ● as a result, Rasputin gained political power and influenced appointments. ● The Tsar had Rasputin killed in 1916 after learning of his damaging influence. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 11

Unit 12 XX 1.2 What were the economic causes of the February and October Revolutions of 1917? Central powers (Germany, Austria, factories closed Italy) prevented Russia down from reaching outside markets Ukraine (wheat- growing region) devastated by war First World War food shortages, high prices, low poor harvest wages and high unemployment Russia cut off from outside help food prices too high = strikes Factories were also being used to meet the army’s demands, and the transport system was inadequate. 1.3 What were the social causes of the February and October Revolutions of 1917? many peasants moved from rural workers lived in overcrowded no running water; areas to towns housing (average 6 per room in insanitary conditions and back Petrograd) bad wages, dangerous conditions, long working hours (60 hours/week) harsh discipline – increased by war 12 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 12 XX 2 Why was the February 1917 Revolution successful? ● At the start of WWI, all political parties were in favour of participation. ● Russia allied with Britain and France ● 1915 = series of crushing defeats ● → after defeats = full mobilisation (organising soldiers for war). 1 Duma set up special committees to co-ordinate war eﬀort (defence, industry, trans- portation and agriculture). 2 Russian factories doubled the production of armaments (weapons). BUT, this resulted in: ● 1916: severe food shortages ● 1916–17: strikes, public violence. The situation in Petrograd was extremely bad for most of the population. As a result of the war, food supplies were low, unemployment was high, and inflation was out of control, with wages not keeping up. Foodstuﬀs were scarce and famine was looming. The February Revolution was the result of an unplanned uprising of hungry, angry people in Petrograd. = February – joined by men, calling women gather in turned into protest calling for for end of war and Petrograd to mark ‘bread and peace’ monarchy St Peter’s day police and army Tsar ordered police/ crowds and violence grew, mutinied, joined army to intervene Petrograd factories closed protesters © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 13

Unit 12 XX By October 28th 1917: ● over 80000 troops mutinied ● rioting widespread ● police powerless to control crowds ● workers captured police stations, destroyed buildings and seized arms. Prime Minister Mikhail Rodzianko: telegram to Tsar Nicholas II: ‘The situation is serious. The capital is in a state of anarchy. The Government is paralyzed. Transport service and the supply of food and fuel have become completely disrupted. General discontent is growing ... There must be no delay. Any procrastination is tantamount to death.’ The Tsar ignored the warning and underestimated the situation. Petrograd Soviet ● Duma continued to meet (dominated by Mensheviks) secretly ● began to call for ● agreed that unrest would revolution and end to continue while Tsar was in monarchy power Tsar ordered Duma to disband ● soldiers ignored orders and joined revolutionaries ● Duma declared a provisional government Tsar ordered soldiers to restore order 14 March 1917 – Tsar Nicholas II abdicated. The Tsar’s brother did not want leadership, so Russia was left leaderless. ● Tsar and family banished to Siberia in 1918 and eventually murdered. 14 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 12 XX 3 Why did the Provisional Government fail? Provisional Government Constituent Assembly ● under the leadership of ● would decide on the future of the Alexander Kerensky country ● consisted of mostly wealthy middle-class ex-Duma ministers ● to govern temporarily until a Constituent Assembly could be elected In the beginning the new government was popular. The Petrograd Soviet stated that they would support it as long as it looked after the interests of the people. Petrograd Soviet’s orders took precedence over government’s Petrograd Soviet Petrograd Soviet issue Soviet Order had as much power Number 1 (1 March Problems of the as the Provisional 1917) Provisional Government Government gave power to government without result: total committees real authority/limited collapse of of common army discipline, soldiers instead government of army oﬃcers powerless © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 15

Unit 12 XX Provisional Provisional Clash of Government’s Government’s Provisional reforms failures Government and ● equality before the law ● failure to Soviets ● freedom of religion, take peasant ● disagreed over land speech and assembly demands into distribution ● the right of unions account ● Soviets: huge estates to organise and ● failed to end war owned by the Tsar strike (important to ● did not and nobility must communists/socialists) redistribute be confiscated and ● an eight-hour day for the land (workers divided amongst the workers remained peasants ● the release of political landless as under ● Provisional prisoners monarchy Government did ● political exiles were ● postponed not want to risk allowed to return to elections – made losing the nobility’s Russia them unpopular support After 1914 ● railway system for transporting food to cities broke down ● traders became increasingly corrupt ● food prices rose but peasants did not benefit from it ● therefore no incentive to produce more crops ● peasants began to reclaim the land they had farmed for centuries ● many soldiers (sons of peasants) returned from the war to assist the land grab. 4 How did the return of Lenin contribute to the October 1917 Revolution? April 1917: political amnesty for exiles: ● Lenin returned to Russia from exile (Switzerland). ● It was hoped that he would help Russia to end its participation in WWI. ‘April Thesis’ – Lenin Lenin’s beliefs ● called for the immediate overthrow ● success in a revolution lay in the of the Provisional Government leadership of a dedicated band of ● transfer all power to soviets revolutionaries ● hand over all factories and land to ● the push for a revolution should be peasants (Marxist ideal) immediate ● slogans: ‘Peace! Land! Bread!’ Trotsky – important colleague of Lenin → played a major role in 1917 revolution. 16 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 12 XX June 1917: ● first All-Russia Congress of Soviets was held in Petrograd ● Bolsheviks (supporters of Lenin) were in the minority ● Lenin’s leadership helped them to influence the delegates ● Bolsheviks openly called for civilians and soldiers to come out onto the street of Petrograd, to condemn the Provisional Government and demand an immediate end to the war ● Minister of War, Alexander Kerensky, ordered a renewed oﬀensive along the Austrian front: ● This military operation failed completely and weakened Kerensky. 4.1 July Days ● Series of anti- ● Riots inspired ● Riots caught ● Provisional government by Bolshevik Bolshevik Government demonstrations slogans and leaders by blamed in Russian response to surprise Bolsheviks cities failed war eﬀort (falsely) ● Bolsheviks banned, Lenin exiled, Trotsky imprisoned Many saw this as the end of the Bolshevik influence over the events of 1917 because they were now enemies of the state. Bolshevik headquarters was at Kshesinsky Palace. 4.2 The Kornilov affair Kerensky’s July 1917: Kerensky Conditions government did Bolshevik appointed General worsened nothing to improve influence Kornilov as the because of the deteriorating increased Commander-in- war economic situation Chief of the army BUT end of Kornilov Kerensky a member August, was also relationship feared that of the General dissatisfied between Kornilov Provisional Kornilov with the Kerensky was plotting Government, ordered his influence of and Kornilov against him Vladimir L’vov, troops to the Soviets became to set up deliberately march on over the strained a military caused trouble Petrograd Provisional dictatorship between them and declared Government martial law © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 17

Unit 12 XX The Provisional Government called on the Petrograd Soviet for help. ● They responded: ● by calling a general strike and arming the workers in order to stop Kornilov’s advance ● railway workers refused to move some of Kornilov’s trains ● trains were redirected ● workers took control of factories, electing committees to run them ● peasants seized land ● soldiers deserted to join land grab. Pravda (truth) Bolsheviks and the Spread exploited Iskra (spark) of Marxist situation gained in ideas popularity (Bolshevik newspapers) After Kornilov revolt: ● Kerensky still in government ● but government increasingly unpopular ● Bolsheviks became more popular (they had stopped Kornilov). Popularity of Bolsheviks gave Lenin opportunity → by September 1917 they dominated the Petrograd and Moscow soviets. Opportunity ● Lenin planned to ● had been in hiding seize power by force ● returned to Petrograd in in name of soviets October Lenin ● many in Lenin’s own party felt timing was still wrong ● opposers felt Lenin had no plans for after power grab Opposition 18 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 12 XX However, Lenin convinced the majority of the Bolshevik Central Committee to accept an armed uprising in principle. Plans were worked out during the next two weeks. ● Bolsheviks had put together an army, but they knew that their soldiers were unreliable ● Trotsky had support in the national army ● Trotsky able to win the Petrograd garrison over to the Petrograd Soviet ● Provisional Government deprived of main military support in Petrograd. 5 Reasons for success of October 1917 Revolution Kerensky and the Provisional Government were aware of the rumours of an intended takeover by the Bolsheviks Provisional Government brought in junkers – the cadets from local military academies – to guard the government buildings Bolshevik troops made their way to the positions allocated to them and began occupying critical points and buildings in Petrograd main telephone and junkers did little to protect the buildings – either telegraph oﬃces, banks, fled or were disarmed without resistance railway stations, post oﬃces and major bridges Success: ● by morning of 25 October, Bolsheviks had every building except Winter Palace ● Kerensky fled city ● Bolsheviks brought the warship, Aurora, up the Neva River – near Winter Palace ● Winter Palace surrounded and captured by 26 October Provisional Government overthrown ● The Revolutionary Military Committee of the Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies issued the following proclamation: ● ‘The Provisional Government has been deposed. State power has passed into the hands of the organ of the Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies – the Revolutionary Military Committee, which heads the Petrograd proletariat and the garrison. The cause for which the people have fought, namely, the immediate oﬀer of a democratic peace, the abolition of landed proprietorship, workers’ control over production, and the establishment of Soviet power – this cause has been secured. Long live the revolution of workers, soldiers and peasants!’ © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 19

Unit 12 XX 5.1 The role of Trotsky ● Very important in 1917 revolution. ● Planned and carried out the Bolshevik seizure of power. ● Convinced the Petrograd Soviet to form a special Military-Revolutionary Committee in October and make him its leader. ● Caused military power in Petrograd to fall into Bolshevik hands. ● Insisted that in order to have less opposition, they should carry out the revolution in the name of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets (rather than in the name of the Bolsheviks). ● Militants from Trotsky’s committee joined with the Bolshevik soldiers to seize the government buildings and then to take over the Congress of Soviets. ● Trotsky became Commissar of Foreign Aﬀairs. Joseph Stalin became the Commissar of Nationalities. 5.2 Bolsheviks in power January 1918: ● planned gathering of the Constituent Assembly ● met only once Meeting of Bolsheviks Bolsheviks in Constituent Assembly ● watched over the power ● assembly refused to meeting with loaded ● issued a series of give up its authority guns decrees ● did nothing to ● declared the ● confirmed the challenge the assembly peasants’ seizure Bolsheviks permanently of land and the dissolved and workers’ control of accused its members industries 5.2.1 Lenin’s beliefs of being ‘slaves to ● abolished class ● Western-style democracies the American dollar’ privileges, were irrelevant (capitalism) nationalised ● in favour of ‘dictatorship of banks and set Proletariat’ up revolutionary ● single-party Bolshevik rule. tribunals in place of the courts 5.2.2 Cheka ● new secret police agency of government 5.2.3 World War I ● debate in the Bolshevik Central Committee (March 1918) ● Lenin withdrew Russia from the war ● treaty of Brest-Litovsk, signed with Germany ● → Russia lost valuable land and resources 20 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 12 XX 5.2.4 Why were the Bolsheviks able to take power? Bolsheviks By late 1917 there was Lenin and Trotsky succeeded in anarchy in the country and were brilliant and appealing to power was there for those determined leaders many soldiers who were able to take it for Bolsheviks and workers who were exhausted by the war Failing to end World War I or address the demands of the peasants, the Provisional Government lost any hope of support © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 21

X 13 Topic XX Unit Civil war and War Communism Key question: How were the Bolsheviks able to win the civil war and take control of Russia? 1 Why was there civil war and what was War Communism? ● After October 1917, Bolsheviks ● increasingly repressive against opponents inside Russia ● tried to maintain economic control by harsh measures/laws known as War Communism. 1.1 Civil war ● despite being in power Bolsheviks still faced opposition ● March 1918 → discontent increasing ● led to civil war. democratic people thought that Constituent democracy would come – Assembly destroyed instead, still dictatorship economic measures unpopular • nationalised large-scale Opposition to industries Bolsheviks • confiscated land without compensation • labour conscription • abolished private wealth old army oﬃcers • banned private trade unhappy with • food produce seized from withdrawal from peasants WWI Result of discontent: In August 1918 Lenin was shot three times by a Socialist Revolutionary agent, but miraculously escaped death. Civil war ● Bolsheviks = Red Army – led by Trotsky ● Opposers = White Army – supported by Britain, France, USA ● → Western countries worried that communism would spread to their shores. ● Between 1918 and 1921 → western Russia controlled by Bolsheviks: ● rest controlled by Social Revolutionary Party. 22 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 12 XX 3 ● Czech Legion = core of resistance ● seized control of large section of Trans-Siberian railway ● total of four armies marched on Bolshevik-controlled territory. Bolsheviks ruthless: ● held families of army oﬃcers hostage to ensure their loyalty ● strict discipline ● deserters and traitors executed ● this harsh leadership of Trotsky ensured the success of the Bolsheviks. savage, cruel used terror fighting on both to ensure co- sides operation Cheka (secret bad organisa- police) found tion of White and executed Army helped ‘enemies’ Bolsheviks Tsar and his family murdered 1.2 War Communism Aim ensure the towns and armies were fed ● economy was centralised and controlled by the Supreme Economic Council ● Supreme Economic Council had right to confiscate food ● banks nationalised ● peasants had to hand over food; food rationed ● those who resisted could be executed ● food became scarcer – nothing to plant ● industry reorganised – large factories nationalised ● workers conscripted – harsh discipline, strikes illegal ● bartering – shortage of money © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 23

Unit 13 XX War Communism Agriculture – Kronstadt mutiny outcomes impact ● opposition to the Bolshevik ● destroyed the ● ruined by the war government reached a Russian economy ● 1921 – drought climax in March 1921 ● opposition to and famine ● loyal sailors from the Lenin grew ● five million Kronstadt naval base ● ‘Workers’ people died of mutinied Opposition’ starvation ● demanded an end to formed ● cannibalism requisitioning and to ● demands grew common amongst communist rule for higher wages, survivors ● 20 000 soldiers from the food, return of ● law and order Red Army put down the workers’ control broke down uprising ● Those sailors from the 2 How did Lenin seize control of naval base who had surrendered were executed the state? 2.1 Vanguard of the proletariat ● highly centralised dedicated body of revolutionaries. 2.1.1 ‘Vanguard’ ● political party that is at the forefront of any mass action, political movement or revolution. After 1919: ● Bolsheviks called themselves Communists ● 1923: Russia renamed Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) ● Communist Party became only legal political party ● religion banned – seen as distraction from loyalty to Party ● all citizens given right to vote, but meaningless because Communist Party the only choice. 3 What was Lenin’s interpretation of Marxism? ● could only be destroyed by violent revolution Capitalism ● rejected all theories of a peaceful evolution to socialism – “betraying Marx’s message” ● instead: unending class conflict expressed by Marx and Engels in the Communist Manifesto 24 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 12 XX 3 ● belief diﬀered to that of Marx Revolution ● Lenin believed that revolution was possible even in a relatively backward country like Russia ● capitalism not fully developed in Russia ● majority of the population were peasants not workers for revolution to succeed, there needed to be a highly Leadership ● disciplined workers’ party ● elite of intellectuals and full-time revolutionaries in control ● human leadership was more important than historical forces Lenin took Marx’s idea of an unending class struggle a step further. ● the ultimate goal of the class struggle was to establish a dictatorship of the proletariat (workers) ● dictatorship of the proletariat = a government representing the majority of the population ● but prepared to use force to control the minority that still opposed it The main base of Bolshevik support was the Communist Party structures and membership ● it was not very popular. 3.1 Why was the New Economic Policy introduced? After Kronstadt uprising: ● Lenin realised that a compromise was needed in order to save the Bolshevik Revolution Some form of capitalism needed to remain, if at least temporarily, even though it seemed to be a betrayal of true Marxist principles. Many Bolsheviks saw no middle ground Opposed to Lenin argued between Communism Lenin’s decision to that Russia and Capitalism compromise had moved to communism too fast New Economic Policy (NEP) introduced If they wished to maintain = adaptation of control they needed to Marxism compromise © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 25

Unit 13 XX NEP to replace War Communism New Economic Aims Agriculture Policy ● to restore failing ● peasants were allowed ● had aspects of economy to sell their surplus grain capitalism ● to increase for profit, which brought ● began to transform production back the incentive to agriculture ● reduce extremes produce more ● estates divided up of poverty and ● peasants could pay tax into millions of wealth in money on what they farms produced rather than ● brought back the giving part of their crop incentive to farm to the state productively Some results ● The growth of a wealthy class of peasants (the kulaks). ● Production increased (by 1926 grain production reached the same level as in 1913). ● Successful in aim: ● restore agricultural production to pre-war levels. Aspects of New Economic Policy ● In towns, small factories were handed back into private ownership (capitalism). ● Factories employing fewer than 20 workers were denationalised (capitalism). ● Private trading of small goods was allowed (capitalism). ● led to the growth of a class of private traders known as the Nepmen ● → they soon controlled most of the trade in Russia. ● State kept control of banking (socialism/Marxism). Stages of NEP ● In 1921, 7% of the wages was paid in money and the rest in goods. The Soviet government ● In 1923, rationing was stopped. worked with Western ● In 1924, all wages were paid in money. capitalist governments ● Surplus staﬀ was retrenched. in order to encourage ● Incentives were also introduced. investment and foreign ● No factories forced to supply the state. aid. 26 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 12 XX 3 3.2 The impact of the New Economic Policy ● improved Russian economy ● but did not totally solve problems. Improvements Failures • factories produced goods • people had no money to buy goods • working conditions improved • unemployment grew with surplus workers dismissed • Russia’s exports increased; aid received • road system still very bad • rail transport was improved • horse and cart still used 4 What was the role of women in the Russian Revolution? World War I ● Millions of Russian men joined army. ● women began taking over the jobs of men in industry ● peasant workers also took on new roles ● → ran farms in the absence of their husbands ● some women fought in the war (joined army, often disguised as men) ● many became nurses. Provisional Government ● gave women right to vote ● right to serve as attorneys ● equal rights in civil service. 1917 Revolutions ● Mass women’s protest sparked oﬀ February Revolution (call for political rights on International Women’s Day) changed idea that feminism = a middle class movement ● Bolsheviks thought men and women should work together ● → no divide in working class ● Between 50 000 and 70 000 women joined the Red Army ● → not required to fight, but many did. Women under the Bolsheviks ● Policy = liberation of women and transformation of the family ● Provided equal legal status to women by reformed laws such as the Code on Marriage, the Family and Guardianship ● allowed husband and wife the right to their own property and earnings ● gave children born outside and inside of marriage the same rights ● divorce was made available on request ● equal pay for equal work ● women got the vote long before other European women ● government department set up to ensure that women were treated equally © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 27

Unit 13 XX Zhenotdel – women’s movement set up by Bolsheviks ● political education and literacy classes for working-class and peasant women ● fought against prostitution. 5 How did the death of Lenin affect Russia? Power struggle: ● Trotsky was close to Lenin → Trotsky seemed to hold the most powerful position in the Central Committee and Politburo ● Josef Stalin emerging as opposition to Trotsky ● Stalin was General Secretary of the Communist Party and Commissar of Nationalities ● Stalin therefore in strong position in Party ● Lenin, however, warned against giving Stalin power ● Lenin considered Trotsky more able Ideological struggle: Nationalism (Stalin) Internationalism ● An independent socialist (Trotsky) state could exist = ‘Socialism ● It was only through the in One Country’. successful socialist or ● Made every eﬀort to communist revolutions in associate himself with other countries that the Lenin. Russian socialist revolution ● Built up power within could be successful (world the Communist Party. revolution must break out ● → General Secretary or Russian socialism was and Commissar for doomed to failure). Nationalities. ● However, made little ● Placed his supporters in eﬀort to build up power. important posts. PLUS: ● Kamenev and Zinoviev joined Stalin to keep Trotsky out of power: formed what was known as the troika, or triumvirate. ● launched a series of attacks on Trotsky in party meetings ● used his history as a Menshevik against him. BUT ● 1924 – Stalin elected new Party leader at Congress: ● removed all of his main political opponents, including Zinoviev and Kamenev ● Trotsky driven out of party and eventually exiled and murdered. 28 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

X 14 Topic XX Unit Russia under Stalin Key question: What was Stalin’s interpretation of Marxism-Leninism? 1 What was Stalin’s interpretation of Marxism-Leninism? ● Socialism internally (Socialism in One Country; nationalism) rather than spreading revolution worldwide (internationalism) ● = very diﬀerent from the Bolshevik theory that the survival of the Russian Revolution depended on proletarian revolutions in countries across Europe. BUT ● Socialism in One Country did not mean that the goal of world revolution should be abandoned ● the one socialist state (Russia) would inspire and assist communist movements in other countries ● Russia could still exist and expand within the region as the only socialist state ● economic development (of Russia) needed to come before international revolution. So, Socialism in One Country ● allowed USSR to co-exist peacefully with capitalist states ● reflected nationalist beliefs of Stalin. Another aspect of Stalinism was a strong bureaucracy, which began to look after its own interests above those of the working class. 2 How successful were collectivisation and industrialisation in the USSR? Stalin carried out his plans for economic development through a series of Five-Year Plans for industry and agriculture. ● What were the specific aims of economic reorganisation under Stalin? ● mechanise and collectivise agriculture to support industrialisation ● move away from private enterprise towards state control of industry (from the capitalist aspects of the NEP to a socialist programme) ● introduce new and more advanced technology in order to rebuild the economy ● build the industrial strength of the USSR in order to become self-suﬃcient. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 29

Unit 12 XX 4 2.1 Collectivisation for plan of industrialisation sell surplus food overseas to raise capital large commercial farms produce more productive, necessary food Agriculture needed to collective farms requirements be modernised • industries expanding • short of grain peasants would move • NEP farms to cities to find too small to work after use modern mechanisation machinery of farms 1929: Stalin introduced Collectivisation – programme for agriculture: state- owned created on land farmers = paid state (sovkhoz) that had belonged to workers the Tsar, the church or the nobility Types of farms farms, animals, tools com- collective bined to form large (kolkhoz) met fierce resistance farm 30 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 12 XX 4 Collective farms (kolkhoz) State farms ● peasants could keep small plot on collective for personal (sovkhoz) use ● not successful ● animals and equipment would be jointly owned ● far away from ● Motor Tractor Stations (MTS) run by the government would towns and provide the kolkhoz with tractors when necessary farmers did ● 90% of the food produced on a kolkhoz would be sold to not want to the state and 10% kept to feed the families on the kolkhoz. work there ● Incentives: ● farmers ● Stalin first oﬀered free seed so that peasants would couldn’t work form collectives for personal ● some poorer peasants accepted. profit ● Opposition: ● did not own ● Kulaks refused to hand over land and produce the land ● Retaliation: ● Stalin sent requisition parties to seize food ● Kulaks arrested and sent to labour camps (gulags) ● eventually millions of peasants unjustly murdered. ● Outcomes: ● Kulaks: burnt crops and slaughtered animals so Communists could not have them → In the Ukraine, an area of strong resistance by the peasants, the state seized grain on a massive scale. This resulted in countrywide food shortages and food rationing. Agricultural production fell dramatically. ● = 1930 & 1932–1933: huge famines in which 6 million died. Famines – causes Natural causes ● Stalin’s policies ● harvests of 1931 and 1932 poor because of ● natural causes drought and floods Stalin’s contribution Consequently: ● 1934 – as a result of Stalin forcing collectivisation: ● refused to release ● almost no kulaks left large grain reserves to ● 1941 alleviate the famine ● → almost all Russian land collectivised. ● to force peasants to give up their grain reserves he introduced harsh collective-farm theft laws © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 31

Unit 12 XX 4 2.2 The Five-Year Plans in industry ● Aimed = revolutionise industry through centralised economy and Five-Year Plans: ● production targets set for each five year period ● plan to transform Russia into industrial superpower ● become equal to leading world industrial powers ● Stalin: State Planning Commission = Gosplan → set targets for production in each region – coal, iron, oil and electricity ● regions set production targets for mines and industries within the region ● → managers set targets for each foreman ● → foremen set targets for each shift and even for individual workers. ● Propaganda: Stalin warned people that unless five-year plans were followed Russia would be crushed by other countries. ● Workers suﬀered greatly but accepted the need to follow the plans - to achieve a communist economy. 2.2.1 The First Five-Year Plan: 1928–1933 (completed 1932) ● Emphasis on quantity and heavy industry: coal, iron, steel. ● Major targets not met BUT outputs in industries = staggering: ● new cities built in places with natural resources ● workers moved to new cities ● new factories; existing factories increased production ● dams and hydroelectric power stations ● new steel mills ● motor, tractor, truck factories ● technicians from Western countries helped ● infrastructure extended; existing roads improved. 2.2.2 The Second Five-Year Plan: 1933–1937 ● Built on achievements of first five-year plan. ● Heavy industry → also focused on quality: USSR became one of world’s major steel producers ● Transport, communications improved (new railways, canals built) ● propaganda increased to motivate workers ● workers fined if targets not met ● productive workers = ‘heroes’ BUT ● Deterioration of living standard ● more consumer goods became available → but quality = poor ● World War II came closer → planners moved up production of military goods ● increase in military goods = decrease in quality and quantity of consumer goods ● more housing provided and attempt to increase workers’ standard of living → but many industries moved east to protect them from threat of war in Europe. 32 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 12 XX 4 Other aspects ● childcare made available to encourage mothers to work ● made use of both incentives and punishments to meet targets ● targets eased slightly = reward for first five-year plan finished before deadline ● food production increased, rationing ended – but production in areas such as coal and oil not so good 2.2.3 The Third Five-Year Plan: 1938–1941 ● Was intended to focus on consumer goods: ● first two years disappointing → goals not met ● only until 1941 → Germany declared war on USSR during World War II ● meant focus shifted to military goods/equipment ● railways extended → special attention to transportation of weapons. 2.3 Were the Five-Year Plans a success? ● centralisation of economy brought some success ● steady industrial growth outstripped Western countries ● by WWII USSR = powerful industrial country, could resist German hostility ● success and growth helped USSR recover from war ● weakness: focus on heavy industry, quantity over quality ● led to shortage of consumer goods ● poor quality goods ● rapid urbanisation = shortage of housing (workers to industrial centres) ● cost many lives Labour ● although some worked voluntarily, many were forced ● political opponents arrested and sent to gulags - forced to work ● conditions harsh, millions died. Overall ● Centralisation successfully turned USSR into industrial superpower. ● Living conditions, however, still terrible for many citizens. ● Success → came at cost of human lives. 3 Nature of political terror in Russia in the 1930s ● By mid-1932 Stalin faced more opposition to policies: ● people criticised him publicly → urged Trotsky to be brought back ● Stalin demanded arrest and execution of opponents at Politburo meeting ● Stalin outvoted → led by friend and colleague Sergey Kirov ● 1934: Kirov shot dead = beginning of terror. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 33

Unit 12 XX 4 Purges Show trials: Communist ● began with murder of 1934–1938 Secret Police Kirov (probably planned ● most of (NKVD) by Stalin) murder blamed Communist Party ● 1936: Nikolai on Trotsky (conspiracy leaders who had Yezhov was theory) taken part in 1917 appointed the ● 93 of the 139 Central revolutions → head Committee members were accused of treason, ● arranged the executed: 1934–1939 executed or sent to arrest of all gulags the leading Red Army purge (1937 →): 1936: Kamenev, ● political figures ● Stalin was suspicious of Zinoviev and in the Soviet high-ranking oﬃcials → fourteen other Union thought they were plotting party members ● tortured people against him with Germany put on trial, to get false ● may or may not have found guilty and confessions been true executed ● Stalin also obsessed with destroying threats to his Purges and show trials placed Soviet Union in a power weak position at the beginning of World War II. ● → Commander-in- Chief and seven After purges, Stalin was paranoid: generals were shot → and wanted to get rid of NKVD because they knew ● 1938–39: all the too much. admirals and half of ● → Appointed new head of NKVD the Army’s oﬃcers ● to weed out ‘fascist forces’ that had tortured had been executed or innocents. imprisoned ● had senior NKVD oﬃcials executed. ● 30 000 members of armed forces executed by end of purges 4 Effect of Stalin’s policies on the Soviet people ● People lived in fear: ● political purges/show trials removed any perceived threat to Stalin ● people terrified of being falsely accused/tried/killed ● 1920s/30s: 2 000 writers/intellectuals/artists imprisoned → 3/4 died ● forced removals to Siberia just before/during WWII ● 20 million sent to gulags: 1/2 died. ● Censorship → cult of obedience/worship ● names of executed leaders wiped out of history books 34 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 12 XX 4 ● Propaganda → Stalin demanded praise ● = posters, sculptures, pictures of Stalin everywhere ● History books changed to portray him as ‘Hero of the Revolution’. ● Apparatchiks: ● loyal to Stalin ● got houses, jobs, holidays. 5 What was the position of women in the Soviet Union under Stalin? Positive changes Negative changes In general ● First Russian generation ● Laws of 1920s ● Higher illiteracy to have prenatal care: changed in order to amongst women ● hospital births. strengthen family: ● Women could be ● Equal education for ● divorce more sentenced just girls. diﬃcult for being wives of ● Equal employment ● child support ‘enemies’ of state rights. if unmarried = ‘Wives of enemies ● More work because of more diﬃcult to of the people’: labour shortage: obtain ● despite few ● childcare set up to ● abortion illegal women being allow them to work ● women lost sentenced ● in 1927 the rights within themselves, percentage of women family. wives had hard working in industry ● Still discriminated time supporting was 28% → ten years against in themselves later, in 1937 it was workplace → lower 40% positions 6 The coming of the Second World War ● Stalin wanted USSR to remain neutral: ● planned for other countries to become financially/politically exhausted by war ● → make USSR the biggest power. ● BUT: Hitler’s aggression, however, too strong to ignore. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 35

Unit 12 XX 4 1938: 1939: 1938–1939: ● USSR signed non- ● German troops ● Czechoslovakia occupied Austria aggression pact invaded and with Germany ● incorporated it divided (Molotov- into 3rd Reich Ribbentrop Pact) ● agreed to divide 6.1 Relationships during WWII: Poland between ● Germany and USSR = reasonably strong diplomatic them. ● 1 September → relations, important economic relationship. ● BUT: also had competing ideologies, mutual Poland invaded hostility ● = WWII began ● Germany: Axis Pact with Japan and Italy: ● tried to negotiate for USSR to join Axis Pact ● USSR made counteroﬀer, which was ignored by Germany ● open hostilities began: ● 22 June 1941, Hitler sent three million soldiers and 3 500 tanks to attack Russia in an invasion called Operation Barbarossa ● → because of non-aggression pact, Russians taken by surprise ● = Russians joined side of Britain and France. 36 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Topic 1 Summary and questions Summary of Topic 1 Unit 1: What led to the 1917 Revolutions Communism = economic and political system: ● Aim = create classless and stateless society: ● workers establish government in their interests ● all means of production brought under government control. Karl Marx Bolsheviks 1917 Revolutions ● Communist Manifesto (1848, with ● Lenin = leader ● 1905 experience Friedrich Engels) and Das Kapital (1867): ● Bolsheviks instigated helped Marxists ● put forward his ideas on capitalism 1905 revolution: plan it. and communism ● used dissatisfaction ● developed ● believed that societies would with social order in political inevitably move from a democracy Russia, rule of the theory, towards socialism Tsars, and rapid organisation: ● finally towards next stage of urbanisation due to ● = successful communism: all people equal, own industrialisation means of production Unit 2: The February and October 1917 Revolutions The 1917 February and October Revolutions had political, economic, social causes: Political Economic Social ● discontent against ● food shortages ● living conditions of repression ● high prices workers ● rising nationalism ● low wages ● worsened by economic ● high unemployment problems Success of February 1917 Revolution ● Widespread strikes: ● military sided with striking people ● military disobeyed Tsar’s orders to put down strikers. Provisional Government ● Set up after February 1917 Revolution = failure ● consisted mostly of wealthy middle-class ex-Duma ministers ● Petrograd Soviet had power equal to that of government ● delayed set up of Constituent Assembly ● did not address concerns of people. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 37

1 Topic XX Unit Summary and questions October 1917 Revolution ● After Lenin’s return: ● he called for immediate overthrow of Provisional Government ● inspired peasants, workers to rise up. ● Was also successful ● = well-planned ● took over all critical facilities. Unit 3: Civil war and War Communism Lenin’s beliefs: ● Highly disciplined workers’ party, strictly controlled by dedicated elite of intellectuals and full-time revolutionaries, was needed. ● resulted in unpopular policies such as: nationalisation, labour conscription and land confiscation ● = Opposition to Bolsheviks ● unpopularity caused unrest = civil war between White and Red Armies War Communism ● System of direct control over economy: Role of women: ● played a central ● applied in areas under Bolshevik control ● aim = ensure towns and armies were fed. role in the Russian ● BUT compromises needed to ensure Bolsheviks retained Revolution ● demonstrations control: ● introduction of the New Economic Policy (NEP) in sparked oﬀ February 1921 to replace War Communism 1917 Revolution ● worked in industries, ● NEP → elements of capitalism (compromise). ran farms and fought Lenin in power in wars ● Lenin’s interpretation of Marxism: ● capitalism could only be destroyed by violent revolution ● helped by Trotsky. ● highly disciplined group of revolutionaries overthrew Tsar, Provisional Government in 1921 Death of Lenin ● Led to power struggle between Trotsky and Stalin: ● Trotsky = internationalism ● Stalin = nationalism. ● Stalin triumphed over Trotsky: ● = new policy: Socialism in One Country. 38 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Topic 1 Summary and questions Unit 4: Russia under Stalin Socialism in One Country Collectivisation Political terror ● not spreading revolution ● Five-year plans = mixed ● To ensure control: worldwide results ● purges, show trials ● would allow Russia to ● → economic ● = thousands focus on implementing development but executed for Communism hardship for people, perceived opposition ● could maintain peace e.g. with non-communist ● purges, food countries. shortages, only heavy industry developed In short ● standard of living did improve in some aspects ● outweighed by suﬀering of people: gulags, torture, wrongful arrests, and so on ● women: some rights improved but other rights taken away to protect family as a unit ● Stalin broke pact with Nazi Germany in 1942 and went to war with them. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 39

1 Topic XX Unit Summary and questions Questions for Topic 1 1 Match the items in Column B with the people in Column A. Column A Column B 1.1 Nicholas II a Russian Prime Minster under the Tsar 1.2 Kornilov b First leader of the Provisional Government 1.3 Lenin c Monk who influenced the Tsarina and meddled in the government in St Petersburg 1.4 Kerensky d Conservative general who tried to overthrow the Provisional Government 1.5 Trotsky e Leader of the Provisional government at the time of the October 1917 revolution 1.6 Alexei Romanov f Haemophiliac son of Nicholas II 1.7 Rasputin g The Tsar’s brother 1.8 Stolypin h Bolshevik Party leader 1.9 Kamenev i Last Tsar of the Russian Empire 1.10 Prince Lvov j A Bolshevik who was head of state briefly after the 1917 Revolution k Leader of the Red Army 2 Explain what each of the following are in the context of the Russian Revolution and the events that followed. 2.1 zemstvo 2.2 Duma 2.3 Zhenotdel 2.4 Soviets 2.5 proletariat 2.6 Iskra 2.7 Cheka 2.8 Pravda 2.9 kulaks 2.10 nepmen 3 Complete the following sentences by filling in the correct place names. 3.1 The Winter Palace is situated in ____________. 3.2 Karl Marx was born in _________. 3.3 The 1905 Revolution or Bloody Sunday occurred in __________. 3.4 The ceasefire between Germany and Russia to end World War I was signed in ________. 3.5 The Romanovs were murdered in ____________. 3.6 The revolutionary name for St Petersburg in 1917 was ___________. 3.7 The Bolshevik headquarters in St Petersburg is the ______________. 40 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Topic 1 Summary and questions 3.8 Sailors mutinied against Bolshevik rule in 1921 in __________. 3.9 Political opponents of Stalin were sent to gulags in ____________ as punishment. 3.10 When Russia became the USSR, the capital city became ____________. 4 How did Lenin propose to deal with these problems in Russia? 4.1 Food shortages 4.2 Feudal privileges 4.3 Land 4.4 Classes in Russian society 4.5 World War I 4.6 Workers’ rights 4.7 Capitalism 5 How did Stalin’s modernisation of the USSR between 1927 and 1941 aﬀect Russia and Russian society? Use the following headings to guide your reasoning. 5.1 Industry 5.2 Agriculture 5.3 Education and literacy 5.4 Women and family life 5.5 Infrastructure 5.6 Life of workers 5.7 Life of peasants 6 Complete the table to compare Lenin and Stalin’s economic policies. Aspects to New economic compare and War communism Five-year plans policy contrast Aims Why was this policy introduced? What changes were brought about? What were the economic results? How did the policy deviate from capitalism? What were the consequences for the Russian people? © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 41

1 Topic XX Unit Summary and questions 7 Analyse the propaganda poster below in the context of Stalin’s Five-Year plans. Refer to each of the clues numbered 7.1 – 7.4. 7.1 Idyllic background 7.2 Group around tractor 7.3 Group in the 7.4 Picture in centre the background 42 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

12 Topic XX Unit Capitalism in the USA 1900 to 1940 Key question for Topic 2: How did the Great Depression in the USA bring about a crisis of capitalism? • What was the nature of capitalism in the USA in the UNIT 1 Page 44 1920s? The nature of • What was the American Dream? capitalism in the USA • How should we understand the capitalist boom of the 1920s? • What was USA society like in the 1920s? UNIT 2 Page 55 • What were the causes of the 1929 Wall Street crash? The Wall Street crash • What was the economic and social impact of the Wall of 1929 Street crash? TOPIC 2 Page 43–76 Capitalism in the USA 1900 to 1940 • How did the offering of a New Deal lead to UNIT 3 Page 59 Roosevelt’s election? • What was the New Deal? The New Deal • What was the opposition to the New Deal? • To what extent did the New Deal weaken or strengthen USA capitalism? • How did the outbreak of World War II help the UNIT 4 Page 67 economic recovery of the USA? The impact of the • What was the impact of the USA crisis of capitalism Second World War on the rest of the world? • Conclusion: the cyclical nature of capitalism © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 43

1X Topic XX Unit The nature of capitalism in the USA Key question: What was the nature of capitalism in the USA in the early 20th century? Introduction How did the United States of America (USA) become the world’s leading industrial and manufacturing country in the early 1900s? ● Foundations of economic strength: ● = raw materials, skilled labour force, growing market for manufactured goods. ● → Early 20th century, USA overtook Britain and Germany in industrial output. World War I ● USA did not enter war in 1914: ● → supported Allies (Britain and France) = main supplier of weapons and food. ● ALSO became debtor nation = lent money to Allies to help in the war eﬀort: ● → WWI boosted USA economy. 1917 ● Germany said it would wage unrestricted submarine warfare: ● all vessels in the war zone would be sunk without warning. ● → German submarines sank five USA merchant vessels in the north Atlantic ● → President Wilson’s cabinet voted in favour of a declaration of war against Germany. ● Lenin withdrew Russia from the War. ● result of WWI ● → traditionally US government did not interfere in business Economic mobilisation ● = change: industries regulated to gear production towards war eﬀort 44 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 1 ● set up in 1917 ● set priorities and plan production in key industries ● allocate raw materials War Industries Board ● tell manufacturers what to produce (WIB) ● order construction of new factories ● with President’s approval → fix prices Labour ● War and arms factories = rapid increase in demand for labour. ● Results: ● improved employment and wages ● membership of labour unions grew ● laws passed = favourable to labour. End of WWI ● helped by entry of USA into war ● 1918: Germany began to try to end war ● → advanced, but fresh troops from USA in Europe = counterattack ● 1919: Treaty of Versailles formally ended war. 1 What was the nature of capitalism in the USA in the 1920s? President Wilson USA after WWI ● 1913–1921 ● US never ratified the Treaty of ● played key role in drawing up the Versailles Treaty of Versailles ● → never became part of the ● included in the Treaty a plan League of Nations to set up a League of Nations = ● way opened for Republican organisation to ensure peace president ● decision not to ratify Treaty of Versailles → end of President Wilson’s political career © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 45

Unit 1 XX PLUS ● Implementation of a policy of isolation ● USA withdrew from direct involvement in European aﬀairs Warren Harding elected president ● 1920 ● Republican ● conservative ● called for a ‘return to normalcy’ → election campaign focused on political isolationism ● → aim = reduce government involvement in business. ● After initial economic slump, capitalism took root: ● in 1922 GNP (gross national product) started increasing ● tariﬀs imposed → protect against revival of German industries. ● Died in 1923. Calvin Coolidge became president (1924): ● Capitalism ● = ‘The business of the American people is business’ ● So → welcomed by big business. ● He focused on industrial expansion at the expense of agriculture. ● He worked to remove government controls over industry and reduce labour laws: ● = rapid expansion of industry → economic boom of the 1920s. ● Isolationism ● = withdrawal from European aﬀairs ● = country’s immigration policies ● first immigrants to America had been mostly of northern and western European heritage. ● After World War 1 thousands of refugees were arriving in the USA daily = alarmed many Americans ● → 1924: Immigration Act = limited total immigration to 165 000 per year, about 15–20% of peak years. Restricted immigration from southern and eastern Europe and Japan to only 9% of the total. ● Free market: ● No interference with free competition by price or wage control – ● → economy would run itself ● → government – not its job to interfere in economy. 46 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 1 2 What was the American Dream? Why did so many people from other countries want to immigrate to America? ● ‘Rags to riches’ stories of immigrants. ● ‘Rugged individualism’, hard work and entrepreneurship = people made their fortunes. ● Gave optimism to Americans, as well as to immigrants to America: ● suggested all people could succeed through hard work ● potential for successful, happy lives. ● = American Dream → 1600s, first settlers ● → dreams: owning land, prosperous businesses ● → religious freedoms. BUT, American reality = ● Inequalities based on class, race and ethnic origin: ● → kept many people poor and unsuccessful. 3 How should we understand the capitalist boom of the 1920s? Boom of 1920s: ● Revealed USA’s strengths and weaknesses. ● ‘We in America are nearer the final triumph over poverty than ever before in the history of mankind.’ (Herbert Hoover, USA president) 3.1 Republican impact on the US economy in the 1920s ● laws introduced that favoured capitalism against labour Pro-capitalist ● federal law that protected children against child labour removed ● law that stipulated minimum wages for women actions removed ● harsh actions taken against striking labour unions ● powers of the federal government agencies were limited ● tax deductions introduced that favoured the rich Taxes and ● American businessmen invested capital in factories that produced new inventions = radios, cars, refrigerators, etc. ● entrepreneurs knew they would be able to keep most of tariffs what they invested ● high import tariﬀs introduced → protect American producers © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 47

Unit 1 XX 3.2 Impact of technology on the US economy in the 1920s Advertising: ● Old consumer values = thrift and saving. ● BUT, advertising contributed to the dramatic increase in the sales of consumer goods on the hire purchase and credit system. ● → new values = spending ● → credit, instalment plans introduced ● → people buy luxury goods. Mass production: ● lowered costs → more people could aﬀord goods (e.g. model T Ford = first car mass- produced by Ford; nickname = Tin Lizzie) 3.3 Impact of the Stock Exchange on US economy in the 1920s New York Stock Exchange – Wall Street ● flourished ● industries’ prosperity led to rising share values ● investors made money by speculating ● buying on credit → extended to shares ● borrow money to buy shares in companies listed on the New Stock exchange York Stock Exchange ● = buying on the margin ● → investors: pay 10% of the value of the share and could borrow the rest from a bank ● share prices rose, they would sell their shares at a profit ● = trading on the margin ● if share prices continue to rise, profit is made; if they fall, people lose a lot of money. 3.4 Other impacts on the US economy in the 1920s In addition to Republican government, technology and the Stock Exchange 3.4.1 The impact of trade tariffs ● To encourage local production, tariﬀs placed on imported goods: ● → made imported goods too expensive for ordinary Americans to buy ● → aimed at forcing Americans to buy American-produced goods. ● Retaliation: European countries put tariﬀs on US goods ● → result: US could not expand imports in those countries ● → local market (US) could no longer absorb goods produced because: ● most people who could aﬀord goods already owned them = no need to buy any more. 48 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 1 3.4.2 The impact of wages and monopolies Wages Monopolies Labour unions and ● rise in the real ● became powerful Communism wages of most ● led to labour ● labour unions suﬀered workers exploitation a setback after WWI ● wages of miners ● one huge company ● fear of the spread of and textile workers dominated steel communism after the dropped industry Russian Revolution ● technological ● US Steel – no ● strikes in 1919 made advances + new choice but to work industry owners + methods = created for them government think that jobs, also destroyed ● banned trade unions were socialist them unions, low wages ● result: strong action ● ‘old’ industries = high prices for against unions + became automated consumer strikers → need fewer workers 3.4.3 The impact of agricultural overproduction ● wealth during 1920s not evenly spread two ‘separate’ Americas Poverty ● ● farmers + farm workers not prosperous ● after WWI income for farmers fell because of European agriculture revival ● inventions: machinery, tractors, combine harvesters Agriculture ● caused farm production to increase just as prices were falling ● overproduction of goods = reduction of price of farm produce ● 1920 = surplus of wheat, which farmers couldn’t sell ● cost farmers more to harvest/transport produce than they Prices were paid for it ● overseas markets closed to imports (tariﬀs) ● value of farmland dropped © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 49

Unit 1 XX In addition, the introduction of synthetic fibres had an impact on the cotton plantations. However, farmers who grew luxury produce were less aﬀected by the overproduction. Wealthy Americans wanted fresh vegetables and fruit throughout the year and supply to the cities rose steadily. ● 1920s: farming = one of largest sectors of US economy: ● approximately half of Americans lived in rural areas ● either lived on farms or worked in businesses supplying farm machinery ● → result: problems aﬀected millions ● worst aﬀected = farm labourers + share croppers ● → nearly 6 million forced oﬀ farms ● unskilled workers migrated to cities ● = largescale unemployment. Many workers from the Midwest moved to California = hoped to find work as farm labourers. 3.5 The overall impact of the US boom in the 1920s Economic Problems Inequality expansion ● wages of the workers ● Huge profits by big ● based on the (consumers) not business + industry: principle: keeping up with ● top 5% of wealthy ● factories income of employers Americans ● would keep ● by end of 1920s received one- producing workers = unable third of all ● consumers to aﬀord goods personal income ● would keep produced by in the country buying economy ● 60% earned just ● export markets enough for bare closed by tariﬀs essentials ● overproduction ● = unemployment ● → poverty in all race/ ethnic groups 50 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 1 4 What was USA society like in the 1920s? Roaring twenties: ● Europe still suﬀering after WWI BUT America thriving = ● jazz, wild parties ● growth of entertainment industry ● more leisure time, more money ● radio → music widely available ● African Americans moved from rural areas to cities → brought jazz + new dances. 4.1 How did the position and role of women change in the 1920s? ● women got vote ● BUT, no real access to political power Vote ● → only handful elected to oﬃce. ● Therefore: women explored ways to become politically/ socially active ● → succeeded in joining together to reform society ● freed women from traditional roles, old ideas about how New ideas they should behave ● progressive young women = ‘flappers’ ● wore short dresses or trousers, cut their hair, wore make-up, smoked in public ● movie stars = sex symbols ● divorce rate doubled → women left unhappy marriages Societal ● joined organisations supporting women’s liberation ● worked for equal gender status change ● advertising targeted women ● → made decisions about what to buy for homes/ families Women and jobs: ● WWI changed labour patterns: ● women take on more challenging jobs ● not eager to return to pre-war roles. ● Driving → brought freedom of movement. ● Society’s rules changed: women went to bars without men as ‘protectors’. ● Especially middle-class women competed with men in job market. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 51

Unit 1 XX Wages: ● Women still paid less than men: ● women = cheaper labour ● → employment of women increased. 4.2 What were race relations like in the 1920s? ● Southern states originally seen as ‘racist’ states Racial ● many poor African Americans moved from rural areas to cities → led to: tensions ● racial tension ● discrimination ● unfair treatment of blacks ● At first whites rioted against blacks ● → retaliation: blacks rioted against the way whites had treated them. Riots ● Services to predominently black areas = poor, e.g. ● Harlem, Manhattan, New York = became ghetto → only black Americans lived there ● → by 1929 = crime-ridden, slum = no services at all. ● still in place in Southern States ‘Jim Crow’ ● enforced segregation ● denied African Americans the right to vote, attend ‘white’ schools or take certain jobs = reserved for whites laws ● no such laws in Northern States but African Americans still = badly paid, e.g. ● doorkeepers, railway labourers, etc. ‘racial purity’ opposed most support everything ‘un- from rural areas, American’ e.g. Indiana, Oregon opposed Jews, white robes and blacks, Catholics, hoods Ku Klux Klan immigrants, com- munists established in height: mid- South → 19th revived in South 1920s = 5 million century after WWI members 52 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 1 Ku Klux Klan tactics ● terrorisation and violence ● force ● rituals ● forced Catholics and Jews to sell property ● extreme violence against blacks = beating, lynching ● 13 million immigrants arrived (south/Eastern Europe) Prejudice between 1900–1914 ● despite most white US-born Americans = descendents of immigrants, they were alarmed at people from ‘undesirable’ countries ● → acts passed limiting immigration 4.3 What was social life like in the USA in the 1920s? 4.3.1 Prohibition ● not very successful ● ban on sale of alcohol → 1920s ● supporters: ‘sober’ society, hard work, less crime ● enforced by federal government. Failure of Prohibition laws ● Alcohol = scarce, therefore expensive: ● people prepared to take risks to make money by smuggling alcohol ● easy for smugglers to bring liquor into the country illegally ● brought over Mexico border. ● → Bootlegging = making/importing alcohol illegally ● → Moonshining = transporting illegal alcohol (at night) ● liquor brought from neighbouring countries - trucks/boat ● people set up own whisky stills ● cost $10 million a year to police Prohibition ● many arrested every year for breaking law (50 000). © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 53

Unit 1 XX Prohibition ● big increase in especially violent crime ● bootlegging = great profit → people willing to protect this income by any means, including violence and crime ● armed gangs employed to protect illicit liquor in trucks → gun battles between rivals Al Capone ● most notorious, most powerful in Chicago ● forced bootlegging operation owners to pay for ‘protection’ ● otherwise threaten to destroy shops ● bribed people, including police, to leave him alone ● killed anyone who defied him ● speakeasies = places where illegal liquor could be bought crime extended to armed robbery, prostitution: End of ● ● more and more called for end of Prohibition ● 1931: end of Depression, states realised liquor tax Prohibition would bring much needed revenue ● Roosevelt (Democrat) won 1932 election: Democrats opposed Prohibition ● → 1933: ended 54 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

X 12 Topic XX Unit The Wall Street crash of 1929 Key question: What were the reasons for the 1929 Wall Street crash and what was its economic and social impact? 1 What were the causes of the 1929 Wall Street crash? ● New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) = Wall Street (its location). ● 1929: Thursday October 24th → first indication of something wrong: ● share prices dropped ● panic selling ● 13 million shares sold. After that, stock market stable for a few days. ● 1929: Tuesday October 29th = Black Tuesday: ● share prices crashed again ● millions of investors lost wealth, unable to repay loans ● forced to declare bankruptcy ● = beginning of terrible economic depression. 1.1 Immediate causes of the Wall Street crash ● People who could not aﬀord loans were given loans: Role of banks ● crash: people had no money to repay the loans ● banks repossessed homes → people homeless ● economic decline → banks could not resell repossessed houses → lost money ● banks used clients’ money to speculate on stock market ● savings of people were lost ● banks and people lost money: both faced ruin 1.2 Other causes of the Wall Street crash The Depression was made worse by factors other than Stock Market speculation. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 55

Unit 12 XX ● businesses kept prices high, made huge profits, but kept wages Inbalance low ● uneven wealth; division between productivity and spending of wealth power ● banks giving too many loans hid this imbalance in wealth for a while ● tax reductions favoured rich: fuelled fever of speculation Govern- ● lack of governement intervention: monopolies and high prices ● hostility towards labour unions, no bargaining, kept wages ment low policies ● trade tariﬀs had opposite eﬀect to that intended → stopped flow of trade between US and rest of world Agriculture ● after WWI high demand for agricultural products declined ● result: surplus of produce → drove prices down ● farmers left farms → farmworkers unemployed 2 What was the economic and social impact of the Wall Street crash? USA entered a period of economic downturn = Great Depression: had enormous economic and social impact. 2.1 The economic impact of the Great Depression USA totally unprepared for major economic slump BUT lack of government action deepened economic crisis: ● By March 1933: ● production output had dropped 30% below 1929 levels ● prices were 25% down ● national income had declined by 50%. ● Small speculators: ● lost everything they had. ● Big businesses ● financiers, bank managers ● lent money for business → went bankrupt ● 1929: 650 banks went bankrupt ● 1933: 4 000 banks went bankrupt ● = unable to recover what was lost in crash. 56 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 12 XX businesses no longer get loans to help many factories closed down economy in downward them through spiral Depression no social security led to more factories closing down, more unemployed could no longer buy – made crash goods worse unemployment Republican local and federal government had authorities had no not favoured plans/budget to cope social welfare with unemployment Also: ● Decline in international trade ● → exports dropped because of closures of factories ● = loss of income for US businesses + government: ● worsened crisis. 2.2 The social consequences of the Great Depression Misery For vast majority of Unemployed could Homelessness unemployed – no not meet rent/ → slept in caused by aid schemes mortgage payments parks, subways, unemployment shantytowns Shantytowns Rioting ● Informal settlements on edges ● Food riots broke out in two small towns, of cities/towns Henryetta (Oklahoma) and England ● shacks of tin/sacking/ (Arkansas) material from rubbish ● people threatened relief agencies and dumps food shops ● ‘Hoovervilles’ → mocking ● Bonus Marchers = small group of WWI Hoover veterans and their families → demand ● food from dustbins, the payment of post-War bonuses charity shops or promised by the government breadlines ● protesters violently dispersed by army © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 57

Unit 12 XX Growth of unemployment: ● In some areas, 1/4 of people unemployed and same number under-employed. ● Relief payments average = $7 to $8 a week. ● No food → malnutrition and anaemia ● Families broken up: ● → men to men’s shelters, women to women’s shelters, children in orphanages ● → suicide rates rose. Poverty carried stigma of laziness and dishonesty Poverty and aid Governement acknowledgment ● authorities considered ● few public leaders acknowledged crisis relatives to be first source of ● Hoover encouraged public to keep up aid hope ● could only apply for help ● eventually Hoover introduced some when completely destitute measures to help poor ● at first, all aid organised by ● increased public works private charities/individuals programmes to provide jobs, ● states forced to take on increased federal government some responsibility when spending and introduced some tax private aid organisations relief ran out of funds ● = too little too late 58 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

X 13 Topic XX Unit The New Deal Key question: To what extent did Roosevelt’s new deal weaken or strengthen capitalism in the USA? 1 How offering of a New Deal led to Roosevelt’s election Political consequence of Wall Street crash for Hoover: ● Mood of voters favoured Democrats (angry with Rebublicans; despondant). ● Hoover: defeated in 1932 Presidential elections. ● Franklin Delano Roosevelt (also known as FDR) won landslide victory: ● promised ‘New Deal for forgotten man’ ● recognised that capitalism was under threat ● aimed at reforms to save capitalism and economy. 2 What was the New Deal? ● Relief for needy ● = immediate assistance to worst hit of Depression. Goals ● Recovery (economic) ● = make industries productive; create employment. ● Reform (financial) ● = changes to economic system (eg: stock market, banks) to prevent future crash ● challenged two basic ideals of Republican America: laissez- faire capitalism and individualism Change from ● wanted to ensure ‘better deal’ for American people ● rejected socialism and government ownership, but recognised need for some intervention, e.g. Hoover ● WWI → US economy had been planned, regulated ● Roosevelt aimed for similar intervention to restore prosperity, reduce social + economic inequality ● → set up Brains Trust Brains trust ● Roosevelt + small group of advisers ● → formulated new policies ● = 15 major legislations enacted during Roosevelt’s 1st 100 days in oﬃce © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 59

Unit 13 XX 2.1 What were the two phases of the New Deal? New Deal = two main phases: ● First New Deal (1933 to mid-1935) ● → focused on relief and recovery, with some immediate reform measures. ● Second New Deal (1935–1940) ● → reform measures. Roosevelt given special powers to fast-track changes. ● He knew he had to restore people’s confidence: ● → ‘We have nothing to fear but fear itself’ = inaugural address. ● Fireside Chats = speeches broadcast to nation on radio (1933–1940). Aims: ● calm the economic fears of Americans ● develop policies to lessen the problems of the Great Depression ● gain the support of the American people for his programmes. 2.1.1 The First New Deal Banking Relief ● 1000s of banks had ● most immediate concern = direct relief of closed → people had no extreme poverty → set up Federal Emergency faith in banking system Relief Administration ● temporarily closed ● = provided state governments with money all banks to pass new for emergency relief legislation ● soup kitchens ● 1933: Emergency Banking ● temporary housing for homeless Relief Act ● → gave Roosevelt Recovery power to regulate ● way of getting economy moving again banking transactions ● → reduce unemployment: and foreign exchange ● so people could support themselves and so ● banks had to be that goods could be bought again inspected and found ● government-sponsored programmes ‘healthy’ to be introduced = Alphabet Agencies reopened ● encouraged people Immediate reform measures to trust banks: government ● change capitalist system = ensure no 2nd crash: guaranteed deposits ● reforms to social security system of small investors ● legislation to change stock market, e.g. ● protection helped ● → buying on the margin, manipulation people deposit of prices = illegal hoarded cash; gave ● reform role of government in economy, code confidence, hope of business conduct 60 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 13 XX Acts passed for reform ● National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) in 1933 = recovery and public works ● = established codes of fair practice for individual industries ● → promote industrial growth ● Public Works Administration (PWA) = part of the NIRA ● = created jobs on public buildings, highways and flood control ● National Recovery Administration (NRA) = part of the NIRA ● = one of most controversial New Deal measures National Recovery Administration (NRA) ● aimed to stabilise business, generate more purchasing power and provide jobs ● → codes of ‘fair’ competitive practice ● defining labour standards ● raising wages ● establish maximum working hours ● require government, employers, labour to negotiate regulations ● businesses in agreement had blue eagle attached to products ● consumers encouraged to ‘buy blue eagle’ ● → broke American tradition of free competition ● resulted in conflict among businessmen, consumers and bureaucrats declared unconstitutional in 1935 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 61

Unit 13 XX 2.1.2 The Second New Deal Tackled key problem of mass unemployment directly. ● Long-term measures of protection: ● protect people in event of another Depression ● federal government had to accept direct responsibility for employing as many people as financially possible (Hoover had rejected this idea). replaced CWA by late 1938 the WPA employed more than three million people Works Progress Administration (WPA) – 1935 built public buildings, hospitals, schools, airports, bridges, highways and parks possibility of government employment helped prevent social revolution The Second New Deal Social Security Act of 1935 Social Welfare measures social security benefits – national system of pensions and an unemployment benefit rich + big business taxed to provide money “soak the rich” tax for social security + benefits evicted sharecroppers helped with loans and homes legalised collective bargaining – for trade unions National Labour Relations restored faith in New Deal after Act (Wagner Act) – 1935 disappointment in NRA workers had right to choose own union in secret ballot Employers resented apparent interference in way of running companies BUT Roosevelt saw measures as way of protecting capitalism, ensuring its survival. 62 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 13 XX Some of these measures meant a significant change in the role of the state. From non- intervention under the Republican administration, under Roosevelt the state played a meaningful role in providing relief and setting up recovery mechanisms. ● He recognised that hungry and jobless people would have little to lose and could threaten the state with revolution. ● He also accepted that the government had a duty to provide safety nets for the old and poor. 3 What was the opposition to the New Deal? Although there was some opposition to Roosevelt’s New Deal policies, these were limited primarily to the wealthy and to business owners. Ordinary people largely supported him and his policies. 3.1 Opposition from the wealthy and conservative Wealthy/Business ‘Soak the rich’ tax ● felt Roosevelt was going too far in interfering in ● used to pay for the business: work of the New ● resented – Deal: ● paying social security contributions = ● wealthy – reduced profits ● considered ● the power that the Wagner Act (1935) gave to Roosevelt to unions be a traitor to ● believed the New Deal weakened capitalist his class principles ● felt New Deal ● felt union activities (e.g. collective bargaining) was moving threatened individualism associated with US towards capitalism socialism Nevertheless: Republican Party had suﬀered huge defeats in the 1932 and 1936 elections © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 63

Unit 13 XX Hoover Republicans ● regarded New Deal as top-heavy federal centralisation and believed: ● New Deal programmes and policies were dangerous ● would result in high government spending, increased taxes, and a significant growth in bureaucracy ● it would end ● believed that New Deal experimentation would actually deepen the eﬀects of the Depression ● it would hold back recovery ● Supreme Court, with its conservative majority until 1936, NRA (in New ruled several of Roosevelt’s programmes of the First New Deal unconstitutional: ● 1935: the Court declared the NRA to be unconstitutional Deal) (although focus of the NRA was already changing) ● 1935: court declared a railway pension law to be invalid ● 1936: Supreme Court ruled against the AAA and high court ruled against a New York state minimum wage law By 1937, however, the courts began ruling in favour of the New Deal legislation as conservative judges left the Supreme Court and Roosevelt was able to appoint judges who were more sympathetic to his measures. 3.2 Criticisms from the left Main criticism = New Deal did not go far enough in solving economic problems/social inequalities. ● Huey Long, ex-Governor and Senator from Louisiana = most outspoken of Roosevelt’s critics: ● argued for the redistribution of wealth and the introduction of a minimum wage across the country ● assassinated in 1935. ● Communists: ● criticised the New Deal as ‘social fascism’ ● Roosevelt = ‘dictator’ ● but also careful to disassociate themselves from Russian revolutions. ● ‘Christ’s Deal’: ● prominent Catholic priest, Charles Coughlin = supporter who later turned against Roosevelt – ● at first supported New Deal = ‘Christ’s Deal’ ● → BUT became increasingly upset at the slow pace of reform ● strongly criticised the destruction of crops and farm animals under the AAA. 64 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 13 XX 3.3 Opposition within the Democrats 3.3.1 Southern States ● local power elites within Democrats → felt New Deal jeopardised position ● uncomfortable with organised labour ● uncomfortable with move to make African Americans their equals 3.3.2 Racism ● group of delegates from the South at the Democratic convention in 1936 walked out of the convention ● would not support any party that viewed African Americans as their political and social equals 4 To what extent did the New Deal weaken or strengthen USA capitalism? Resoration of Regulation of Further economic confidence economy problems ● Depression had ● New Deal not a ● New Deal did not end placed US free revolution the Great Depression market system – ● did not bring about ● 1937: Roosevelt liberal democratic radical change began cutting system of ● did not abandon government government – under capitalist spending to severe threat principles balance the ● Roosevelt: ‘hungry ● reformed and federal budget and jobless people strengthened the ● = threw the are the stuﬀ of capitalist system in country into a which revolutions America new phase of the are made.’ ● removing abuses Depression ● restored the of unregulated ● 5 million lost confidence economy jobs of Americans ● gave the state a role ● 1938: again in the free in the economy in deep market system that benefited the Depression and liberal economy ● Move towards World democracy ● state involvement War II brought ● American actually Depression nearer to way had been strengthened USA end preserved capitalism © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 65

Unit 13 XX 4.2 To what extent did the New Deal weaken USA capitalism? For the first time people expected the federal government to play a role in the nation’s social welfare. BUT ● Capitalists believed this = weakening of capitalism ● → said: government had no role to play in providing security or relief for the unemployed, elderly or sick. 4.2.1 Rise of the corporate state ● Republican US: big business had a virtual monopoly on political power. ● BUT: New Deal regulation = created two new players at the political table: big labour and big government ● PLUS: New Deal + WWII = drew business, government and labour closely together. 4.2.2 Co-operation of business and government ● Labour: provided steady workforce ● Government: regulate and stabilise the market to avoid high–low cycles in the economy ● → some businesses made some concessions to labour and government ● conservative capitalists saw this as a further weakening of capitalist principles 4.3 What is the legacy of the New Deal as a whole? Although the New Deal (interrupted by World War II) went some way to alleviating problems of Depression, it did not solve them entirely. ● Legacy: ● brought back dignity to many ordinary Americans. ● Failures: ● ‘Ordinary Americans’ did not include most African Americans: ● tenant farmers, farm labourers, domestic workers = occupations mostly of black Americans → did not qualify for unemployment benefits, minimum wages or farm subsidies ● Segregation policies continued to apply in the Southern states ● segregation was applied in the armed forces and the CCC ● no vote for many blacks in Southern States. ● ‘Last hired = first fired’. ● Women discriminated against in workplace, e.g ● → paid less than men. 66 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

X 14 Topic XX Unit The impact of the Second World War Key question: What was the impact of, and responses to, the crisis of capitalism in the USA in other parts of the world? 1 How did the outbreak of World War II help the economic recovery of the USA? Roosevelt won the 1936 elections and seemed to be doing very well. ● 1937: he believed US economy had almost recovered: ● → tried to balance federal budget by cutting back on New Deal spending – ● result = new phase of Depression: economy would not recover from 2nd phase until US entered WWII. Mid 1930s ● Clear that Hitler = heading towards causing war ● Roosevelt had followed Wilson’s ideas of internationalism → recognised USSR: ● → hoped diplomatic relations with USSR would open up trade between them = unsuccessful. ● American public were firmly isolationist and did not want to become involved in Europe. ● BUT: Roosevelt = certain USA involvement in a European war was inevitable ● → unable to push through policies that acknowledged this ● BUT: 1938/39 – USA began to make the changes in industry and military to be ready: ● = increased industrial production = increased employment = contributed to economic recovery of USA. 1.1 Neutrality Acts Neutrality Act of 1935 Neutrality Act of 1936 Neutrality Act of 1937 • prohibited shipment of US • renewed the provisions • two previous laws a permanent part of weapons to any belligerent of the 1935 act for US national policy, without expiration country (country at war) another 14 months date • declared that American • forbade all loans or • US ships were prohibited from citizens travelling on war- credits to belligerents transporting any passengers or articles ring ships travelled at their to belligerents and US citizens were own risk forbidden from travelling on ships of belligerent nations • allowed the President to draw up a list of non-military goods, such as grain, which the US could sell to countries at war Even trade that was permitted was strictly regulated: countries had to pay cash and transport any goods bought from the US on their own ships. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 67

Unit 13 XX 1.2 World War II ● 1939: Germany invaded Poland. ● US started to provide the Allies with war materials ● = increased production in the USA → more employment ● 1940: US started drafting men into the armed forces = reduced unemployment ● 1941: Japan bombed the US base at Pearl Harbour ● → US declared war on Japan ● Germany recognised its alliance with Japan ● → declared war on US ● Result: US economy geared towards the production of war goods ● increased government spending = much more that during New Deal ● → economy revived = America achieved pre-Depression levels of employment and prosperity. 2 What was the impact of the USA crisis of capitalism on the rest of the world? ● Great Depression spread throughout the world: ● Economic recovery of Europe after the WWI = dependent upon United States loans. ● Many businesses and industries in Europe, as in US, existed due to speculation instead of on real production power: ● → stock markets crashed, the rest of the economy collapsed. ● 1931: banks in the United States started to withdraw funds from Europe: ● = selling of European currencies and collapse of many European banks ● → investment funds dried up as creditors = bankrupt or tried to cut back on production. 2.1 Reactions of countries USSR Latin America ● escaped the Depression ● depended on export of primary products ● 1930s: Stalin = Socialism in One ● already experiencing Depression in Country: building an industrial 1920s: supply of agricultural products society under communist control was rising faster than demand (more ● → cut economic ties with most eﬃcient farming methods, technology) other countries ● consequence: prices falling → ● = rapid industrial growth governments of the producer without outside capital → countries stockpiled their products prevented Depression ● BUT: depended on loans from the ● = lack of serious USA and Europe unemployment ● → loans recalled: stockpiles ● = production rate rose steadily released = income falls drastically. 68 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 12 XX 4 Germany/Japan USA/Britain ● the rise to power of militarist ● resulted in government governments intervention in the economy ● = adopted regressive foreign policies ● = creation of welfare systems ● → led to WWII. ● = managed economies 2.2 The impact of, and responses to, the USA crisis of capitalism in Germany Germany’s Weimar Republic = hit hard by the depression: ● Reparations at end of WWI to victors: European powers (Treaty of Versailles, 1919): ● → forced to borrow to pay reparations + for industrial reconstruction. ● Depended on loans from USA for both: ● American economy = depression, US banks recalled their loans ● = German banking system collapsed ● = businesses, industries collapsed, unemployment soared ● → had political implications. para-military organisations – to cut unemployment open way for extremist parties Political work-creation (left and right) to implications scheme – Hitler gain support Communist Party (KPD) and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) PLUS ● Hitler → rearmament programmes: ● = reduced unemployment ● increased industrial growth. ● Rationing + trade controls = keep consumption down → inflation low. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 69

Unit 13 XX 2.3 The impact of, and responses to, the USA crisis of capitalism in Japan ● new industrial country Industries ● heavily dependent upon export earnings for financing its imports of essential fuel and raw materials ● silk industry, an export staple, was already suﬀering from the development of artificial silk-like fibres produced by Western chemical giants. ● luxury purchases collapsed Collapse ● severe unemployment, crucial political crisis ● 1929 –1931: value of Japanese exports dropped by 50% ● workers’ income dropped ● bad harvests = rural begging, near starvation. more successful than those of the New Deal Measures ● ● policy of deficit spending to stimulate the economy ● devalued the currency → industrial production doubled. for recovery ● 2.3.1 Deficit spending ● stimulated business activity ● created jobs ● encouraged consumer spending ● resulted in money for government (taxes) ● → but: this money went to ● buying of munitions for the armed forces ● = support an increasingly nationalistic and militarising country. ● 1934: reduce deficit spending – cut back on armaments and munitions. 2.3.2 Reaction to end of deficit spending: ● Nationalists reacted with anger, particularly those in army: ● → finance minister = assassinated ● → civilians in governments ● = came increasingly under the control of the military ● WWII: Japan = military dictatorship. 70 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 12 XX 4 2.4 The impact of and responses to the USA crisis of capitalism in South Africa Gold Agriculture & minerals ● SA currency = backed by gold standard → ● Demand for South African made price of SA goods high agricultural and mineral ● 1932: decision made to go oﬀ gold standard exports dropped (world = began process of economic expansion. trade slumped), e.g. ● SA saved from a complete collapse by ● price of wool fell 75% the gold mining industry: between 1925–1933. ● gold shares rose rapidly as investors ● → farmers unable to took their money from the securities pay mortgages = were (stock) market and bought up gold forced oﬀ their farms shares ● bywoners ● growing gold exports compensated (sharecroppers) – did to a certain extent for the loss of not own any land – other trade revenue. particularly hard hit. Carnegie Commission on Poor Whites (1931) ● Most rural white South Africans = Afrikaners = concern for government: ● nearly one third of Afrikaners lived in deep poverty. Serious drought: ● Made situation worse: ● BUT: SA government used the plight of Afrikaner farmers who were in financial diﬃculty to foster Afrikaner nationalism. Financial plight of Afrikaner farmers To an extent, the financial plight of the Afrikaner farmers had been brought on by the worldwide economic depression that had its roots in the USA Great Depression that started in 1929 with the Wall Street crash. ● → helped Nationalist Party into power in 1948 ● = entrenchment of apartheid. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 71

Unit 12 XX 4 3 Conclusion: the cyclical nature of capitalism sustained increase in a number of economic indicators driven by a rapid expansion of credit to the private sector economic recession is usually short-lived with consumption growth resuming within a year boom-bust-boom cycle with rising prices of commodities and the stock market index large reduction in investment and a fall in consumption asset prices collapse and there is a credit crunch people have greater difficulty in accessing loans and credit ● Depression caused complete turnaround in economic theory + government policy ● 1920s: ● governments and business people believed that prosperity resulted from least possible government intervention in domestic economy ● from open international trade ● from currencies fixed in value and readily convertible ● After 1930s: ● change in beliefs = some government regulation of economy → necessary. 72 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Topic 2 Unit XX Summary and questions Summary of Topic 2 Unit 1: The nature of capitalism in the USA ● American Dream: anyone could become prosperous Early 1900s → driven in the USA. BUT: inequalities based on class, race and by American values ethnic origin limited many from pursuing prosperity. and policies: = rugged ● 1920s boom → driven by government non-intervention individualism, laissez- in economy = many dubious practices: credit and faire and free market. instalment plans, buying shares on the margins ● + trade tariﬀs, low wages and monopolies also drove boom ● → Gave rise to ‘roaring twenties’ = economic prosperity/women’s liberation/ prohibition. Unit 2: 1929 Wall Street Crash ● Mainly due to lack of government control over the economy, e.g. ● failure to regulate the stock exchange. ● Monopolies, low wages, low agricultural production and high import tariﬀs also contributed to Crash. Unit 3: The New Deal ● Roosevelt succeeded Hoover: promise of new deal for ordinary Americans ● = direct government intervention in the economy ● focused on relief for the needy, economic recovery and reform of the financial sector ● → provided work for millions, helped prevent total economic collapse ● many business owners and wealthy people were against = they were more heavily taxed ● resented government interference in their aﬀairs, e.g. unions = power of collective bargaining. Unit 4:: Impact of WWII ● Despite New Deal, US slipped into 2nd recession in 1937. ● BUT: onset of WWII = USA industries started producing war machinery ● = increased production + employment ● → helped US recover from Depression ● Great Depression = international impact = contributed to World War II, e.g. ● German poverty helped Hitler + nationalism to become popular ● Intensity and duration of the Great Depression = economists rethink the economic boom-bust-boom cycle. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 73

12 Topic XX Unit Summary and questions Questions for Topic 2 1 Did everybody benefit from the boom years during the 1920s in the USA? Draw a mind map to illustrate what eﬀect the boom years had on: a Sharecroppers – especially in the Midwest b The unemployed c Black Americans (in inner cities and the South) d Immigrants e Working-class women f Middle class. 2 What were the causes of the Wall Street Crash and the Great Depression in the USA in 1929? Use these headings to draw a mind map of the causes of the Wall Street Crash and the Great Depression in the USA in 1929. You can add other causes if you want to. Your mind map must expand on ALL the causes. ● Overproduction ● Uneven ● Problems distribution of in Banking wealth Causes of Great Depression and Wall Street crash ● Laissez faire policies ● Tariﬀs of the government ● Credit and speculation 74 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Topic 2 Unit XX Summary and questions 3 What were the consequences of the Great Depression? Copy and complete the following mindmap: Consequences of the Social consequences Economic consequences Great Depression Political consequences 4 Explain the meaning of the following phrases or terms in the context of the economic and social history of the USA from 1920 to 1941: a boom years b protective tariﬀs c America Dream d laissez faire policy e Tin Lizzie f Policy of isolation g mass production h Jim Crow laws i trading on the margins j rugged Individualism. Your explanation of phrase or term should be in paragraph form and include the following: ● start and end dates, if applicable ● relevant background information, if relevant (e.g. for ‘boom years’ you should outline what gave rise to them) ● any outcomes or results, if relevant ● an outline of the meaning of the term or phrase itself. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 75

Topic 2 Unit XX Summary and questions 5 Complete the graphic summary of Roosevelt’s New Deal by filling in the agencies and the focus of their work in the open spaces: Agencies Focus of agency’s work Relief for the unemployed Recovery of the Agencies Focus of agency’s work economy Reform the Agencies Focus of agency’s work economy to prevent another Depression © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 76

13 Topic XX Unit Ideas of race in the late 19th and 20th centuries Key question for Topic 3: What were the consequences when pseudo- scientific ideas of race became integral to government policies and legislation in the 19th and 20th centuries? UNIT 1 Page 78 • What were the ideas about racial hierarchies in the Theories and practice 19th century? What was eugenics? of race • What is the modern understanding of race? • Practices of race and eugenics CASE STUDY 1 Page 83 • Background: the colonisation of Australia • What were the race theories in Australia in the early Australia and the 20th century? indigenous Australians TOPIC 3 Page 77–100 • What were Australia’s immigration policies? • Who were the stolen generation? Ideas of race in the late 19th and 20th century CASE STUDY 2 Page 87 • How did Hitler consolidate his power in Germany? • How did the Nazis develop their racial ideology? Nazi Germany and the • How did Germany create a racial state? Holocaust • Which groups were targeted by the Nazis? • Choices that people made © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 77

1X Topic XX Unit Theories and practice of race Key question: What were the theories and practice of race in the late 19th and 20th centuries? 1 What were the ideas about racial hierarchies in the 19th century? ’Science of race’ Racial classification 1730s: Carolus Linnaeus 1795: Johann Blumenbach classified (Swedish naturalist) humans into 5 groups: Negro (African), developed a system to show Mongolian (Asian), Malay (Southeast Asia), relationships between living American Indian (American), Caucasian things. Classified humans (European). He believed Caucasians were into 4 groups: European, the best and most beautiful of the 5 ‘races’ Asiatic, American, African. and that other races degenerated from the Believed there are more Caucasian race. similarities than diﬀerences among them. Each race is different Ranking on physical appearance Mid-1800s: Stanley Morton Petrus Camper (Dutch scientist: 1790s) (American anthropologist) studied skeletal remains of humans and indicated that each race animals. Thought all humans came from was created diﬀerently and a common ancestor but that some had separately. Ranked races drifted further away from the biblical according to the size of the ideal than others. Believed the ancient brain. Believed whites were Greeks and Romans to be the closest to the superior race and Africans human perfection and used Greek statues inferior. to set standards for human beauty. A table of races Questioned Morton’s theories In 1854 Josiah Nott and George Mid-1800s: Friedrich Tiedemann (German Gliddon claimed that each professor) investigated the link between race had developed separately race, intelligence and brain size. His and organised races into a findings did not support Morton’s findings. table showing a ranking order. 78 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 1 1.1 The origin of species according to Charles Darwin ● Darwin’s theory of natural selection classified humans as another form of animal: ● → this went against the contemporary beliefs of the Church. ● He believed that all plants and animals evolved from a few common ancestors by means of ‘natural selection’ and ‘survival of the fittest’. ● The ‘fittest’ = species that had adapted to the environment ● → pass more of their genes on to future generations. 1.1.1 Social Darwinism ● People in the mid-19th to early 20th centuries = obsessed with issues of race: ● → tried to find a ‘scientific’ basis for physical diﬀerences between individuals, social classes and races. Herbert ● developed the theory that became known as Social Darwinism Spencer ● first used the word ‘evolution’ and the phrase ‘survival of the fittest’ Social ● believed that physical and social diﬀerences indicated relative worth Darwinists ● for them life was a ‘struggle for existence’. 1.2 The impact of industrialisation and progression The eﬀects of industrialisation and technological advancement of America, Britain and Germany were used to justify: ● the theory that white ‘races’ = superior and more advanced than other ‘races’ ● European domination of other ‘races (colonisation and empire building) especially in Africa in the late 19th century: ● = ‘burden’ of the European nations to ‘civilise’ the peoples of ‘darkest Africa.’ ● The belief spread that if people were too weak to defend their territory, then they deserved to lose it. ● Exhibitions and fairs held in European cities in the late 19th century to celebrate achievements and to share ‘new’ knowledge: ● racial hierarchies and rankings from highest to lowest = part of these exhibitions ● → entrenched the idea that white Americans and Europeans were superior to Africans, Asians and Native Americans. ● People (e.g. Saartjie Baartman) were put on show at fairs to encourage debate about racial inferiority. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 79

Unit 1 XX 2 Another branch of race science: Eugenics ● Darwin’s cousin, Francis Galton, invented the word eugenics = from the Greek word eugenes or well-born. ● = the science of the improvement of the human ‘race’ by breeding the ‘best of the best’ and through this, controlling inherited human traits. ● Galton believed that an enlightened society should ‘weed out’ its unfit and allow them to die oﬀ to strengthen the racial stock. ● → aim was to ensure that only the ‘fittest’ should be encouraged to have children ● = so that there would be an improvement of the ‘human stock’. ● provided a ‘scientific’ framework for concepts about race. ● Eugenicists believed that there were genetic distinctions amongst races and individuals. ● Wealthy American businessmen financed research and the development of eugenics as a legitimate science. ● Charles Davenport set up a Eugenics Record Oﬃce ● → claimed that ‘races’ inherited genetic traits. ● He published traits related to specific groups of immigrants that he studied. Positive eugenics Negative eugenics • In some USA states ‘superior’ couples were • The belief and practice that discouraging encouraged to have more children or preventing reproduction of individuals • Nationwide contests were held to determine deemed genetically unfit could eradicate the ‘ Fittest Family’ or ‘Better Babies’ many social problems • Many family planning clinics were opened • In public policy this became sterilisation as a result of these ideas programmes: 30 US states passed sterilisation laws and about 65 000 persons were involuntarily sterilised. 3 What is the modern understanding of race? Archaeology, palaeontology and genetic research currently support the view that all humans are members of the same race. Fossil and genetic records and evidence support the idea of evolution. ● The Human Genome Project (2008) aimed to sequence and map all the genes (known as the genome) of humans. It showed: ● in 2003 that the idea of ‘race’ is a false one ● all humans are 99,9% the same ● → the idea of race has no scientific foundations ● supports the view that humans originated in Africa ● and that only a small group of related people of African origin left Africa and populated the world. 80 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 1 4 Practices of race and eugenics 4.1 USA ● Eugenics influenced laws and public policy in the USA in the early 1900s, e.g. ● state laws banned marriages if one partner was an alcoholic, feebleminded, insane or suﬀered from diseases such as syphilis and tuberculosis. ● Eugenicists recommended that budgets should not be ‘wasted’ on those declared ‘feebleminded’ or those too weak to survive. ● → IQ tests developed to determine intelligence in order to identify those who were feebleminded. Tests were weighted in favour of white, Western culture. ● Immigration laws favoured northern Europeans: ● → discouraged immigrants viewed as biologically inferior. ● Actions against Native Americans in the early 1900s → justified: ● = the ‘struggle for existence’. 4.2 Australia Diseases and colonial policies that began in the late 1800s decimated the population of about 1 million Aboriginal Australians. ● Eugenics influenced colonial practices of social assimilation, extermination and ‘breeding out’ aboriginal blood. ● European immigration was encouraged to increase the white population. 4.3 Germany and the Third Reich Extreme nationalists regarded a nation as a single race with the same language, ancestry, culture and physical and mental characteristics. Many believed that these traits were transferred genetically = racial: ● So, races had be kept separate and pure ● weak races or individuals had to be exterminated ● = example of how eugenics stimulated the rise of fascism and nationalism. 4.4 South Africa After World War I eugenics influenced social and public policies: ● Many believed that cultural diﬀerences between whites and blacks in SA could be as a result of physiological diﬀerences in the brain. ● So, eugenicists in SA promoted white racial superiority, racial segregation and anti- miscegenation. ● The Great Depression and resulting economic competition (e.g. for jobs) between blacks and whites ● = encouragement of eugenicist ideas → keep blacks oppressed and provide white with jobs ● the SA National Maternal and Family Welfare started a system of birth control that was aimed at the maintenance of white supremacy in the early 1930s © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 81

Unit 1 XX ● in 1960s white women were encouraged to have babies in celebration of the founding of the republic ● immigration policy encouraged white immigration. ● Family planning programme was implemented in the 1970s to distribute contraceptives freely to black women. ● some black women were threatened with job loss if they fell pregnant ● some were sterilised without their knowledge or consent and there was also some sterilisation of the mentally ill. 4.5 Namibia (German South West Africa: GSWA) In 1904 German authorities carried out a campaign to exterminate the Herero from GSWA = genocide. The German general, von Trotha, called the genocide a ‘race war’. ● Dr Eugen Fischer from Germany Eugenics carried out research on the Nama and Herero who were in concentration and labour camps that were established. ● = Studied children called the ‘Rehoboth Bastards’ – children of Rehoboth women and German or Boer fathers. ● After experiments were carried out on them he concluded that these children were mentally inferior to their fathers. As a result mixed marriages were banned in GSWA. ● His policies, set out in his book The Principles of Human Heredity and Race Hygiene, influenced the racial policies of the Nazis in the Third Reich. 82 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Case study X1 XX Australia and the indigenous Australians Key question: What were the consequences for indigenous Australians when pseudo-scientific ideas of race became integral to government policies and legislation in the 19th and 20th centuries? 1 Background: Esablishing Australian colony Willem Janszoon After 1606 English Britain became (Dutch navigator) = first sailors and explorers interested in European to record first began landing on establishing a sight of Australia. continent. colony there. 162 000 male and female On 26 January convicts from England 1788 a British Once Britain lost and Ireland were sent to colony was the American War of Australia between 1788 to established at Independence and 1867. Many were pardoned Botany Bay = the colonies there = and given land. start of New shifted attention to South Wales. Australia. Conditions for By 1791 trade farming were was established Plan of first governor extremely harsh and conditions of New South Wales and diﬃcult. Many showed an (Captain Arthur convicts lacked the improvement. Phillip) = to establish required skills to farm. friendly relations with the Australian Aborigines and to try to reform the Settlers viewed Stonemasons were in high convicts. the indigenous demand. Many female convicts people as less became domestic servants than human. to the free settlers, but some First century of were forced into prostitution. colonisation = Many men were handed to the conflict and land free settlers to work on farms dispossession. and extend infrastructure. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 83

Case Unit study 1 XX The deterioration of colonial relations in Australia as a result of dispossession and oppression: A smallpox In 1790 Later the Aborigines epidemic conflict arose treaties raided farms decimated as settlers In 1835 two were or attacked the displaced the treaties were overridden sheep and Aboriginal Aborigines signed with as though cattle until population oﬀ their land. a clan to the land the late living Guerrilla ‘buy’ 600 had been 1880s in an around attacks were 000 acres ‘empty’ attempt to Botany Bay, launched of land near when the stop settlers Broken Bay against Melbourne. British from taking and Port the white arrived. their land. Jackson. settlers. Further developments: ● The continent was colonised progressively by the British and new colonies were established: By 1888 only ● Van Diemen’s Land 1803, Western Australia in 1827, about 80 000 South Australia in 1936, Victoria in 1859 and the of the 1 million Northern Territories in 1912. Aborigines ● In 1901 the Commonwealth of Australia was formed with a survived. federal government. ● Australia Day is celebrated on 26 January. ● Aborigines consider this day one of mourning and protest. ● Attempts by indigenous Australians to have their story and heritage recognised were ignored until 1967 when attitudes began to change. 2 What were the race theories in Australia in the early 20th century? ● Colonists viewed the indigenous Australians as inferior and scarcely human. Their way of life was seen as ‘primitive and uncivilised’, and colonialists believed that their culture would eventually die out. ● This view justified colonial conquest of the Aboriginal people. Social anthropologists from universities who ‘studied’ the way of life of the Aborigines reinforced this view: ● → added some ‘scientific’ credibility to observations about this ‘primitive’ society with the lowest level of kinship and the most ‘primitive’ form of religion. ● also added to the views of Australian eugenicists without deeply analysing the complexities of Aboriginal life. 84 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Case Unit study1 Unit XX 1 XX Eugenics associations were established in many states, e.g. New South Wales and Victoria. In 1960 the Racial Hygiene Association, based in Sydney, became the Family Planning Association. ● A prominent eugenicist in Melbourne was Prof Richard Berry who believed the Aborigines to be the most primitive form of humans. ● Berry studied and measured people’s heads to prove his theory that white, educated people were the smartest, while the poor, criminals and Aboriginal Australian were the least so. ● Berry proposed a euthanasia chamber for so-called mental defectives. Ideas of racial decay and racial suicide were aimed at strengthening the number of whites in society, especially in the north where Asian populations were expanding. ● In 1901 the Immigration Restriction Act was passed (known as the White Australia Policy). White racial unity was promoted as a form of racial purity. ● Immigration was encouraged from the UK in 1922 to swell European numbers and thousands of children were sent to keep Australia white. ● 1912: white mothers oﬀered £5 childbirth bounty in order to grow the size of wealthy middle class families, which tended to have fewer children than poorer, pauper families in society. This was partly in response to the debate around ‘racial suicide’ ● → it was thought that the middle class would die out because they were not having enough children. ● Decrease in number of middle-class whites led to notions of ‘racial decay’. ● Felt that ‘racial poisons’ (e.g. TB, venereal disease, prostitution, alcoholism and criminality) would decimate whites with good stock (middle class). ● Plans were made to deal with ‘racially contaminated’ and misfits to keep middle class ‘pure’. 3 What were Australia’s immigration policies? The White Australian policy of 1901 aimed at cohesion among the white population in the country. It enshrined discrimination and white superiority. ● Between 1920 and 1967 thousands of British children between the ages of 3 and 14 were sent to Australia and Canada to boost the size of the white population. ● These children came from poor backgrounds and were mostly in social care. ● Many of these children were cut oﬀ from their families and were often told they were orphans. ● Many of these children stayed in orphanages in Australia or became unpaid cheap labour on farms + in some instances were physically and sexually abused. ● The children who were forcibly migrated under the system became known as the Lost Generation. ● Catholic Church → established homes to accommodate and assist migrant children. ● In 1987 the Child Migrant Trust under the leadership of Margaret Humphreys began to publicise the abuse of child migrants. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 85

Case Unit study 1 XX 4 Who were the Stolen Generation? Children of mixed race were either viewed as inferior by some or as slightly more superior than other Aborigines. BUT, at the beginning of the 20th century, these ‘half- caste’ children were viewed as a threat to the future of the white race in Australia. ● In 1913, W. Baldwin Spencer set up 13 proposals to manage the half-caste populations in and around the towns, mining housing and other sites of contact between ‘races’. These included: ● segregated living areas in certain towns, limits set on the employment of indigenous population by white Australians, the removal of Aboriginal people to a compound, the construction of a half-caste home in one area, a ban on inter- racial contact and authority given to protectors in some areas to remove ‘half- caste’ children from their families and place them in homes. ● By 1930s the number of part-Aboriginal population increased. Dr Cecil Cook and A.O. Neville believed that the white race was headed for extinction. They were responsible for assimilation programmes for ‘breeding blackness out.’ ● About 100 000 ‘mixed-race’ children were taken from their parents between 1910 and 1970 to breed out Aboriginal blood. ● Cook encouraged lighter-skinned women to marry white men and in this way ‘breed out their colour’. ● In 1951, the new Minister for Territories, Paul Hasluck, claimed that assimilation would be the new policy to deal with the indigenous people and motivated this on the grounds of looking after the child’s welfare. Policemen or government oﬃcials often took children from their sobbing mothers → they were raised as orphans. Many of these children experienced abuse and neglect. ● Labels were used, e.g. quadroon, octaroon, to indicate how much ‘white’ blood they had. ● This policy only ended in 1971. ● → These children are known today as the Stolen Generation. 4.1 Apologies to the stolen and lost generations The practice of removing Aboriginal children from their families was not spoken about until 1997. ● An oﬃcial enquiry revealed consistent abuse, exploitation in the labour market, social dislocation that led to alcoholism, violence and early death. ● In 2009 Prime Minister Kevin Rudd apologised in parliament for the laws and policies that inflicted grief, suﬀering and loss on them. He particularly mentioned the ‘Stolen Generation’ who had been removed from their families. ● In 2010 Rudd apologised to the ‘Lost Generation’ of children who were held in orphanages and other institutions between 1930 and 1970. 86 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

CaseUnit study Topic 1X XX TopicXX Unit 2 1X Nazi Germany and the Holocaust Key question: What were the consequences in Nazi Germany when pseudo- scientific ideas of race became integral to government policies and legislation in the 19th and 20th centuries? 1 How did Hitler consolidate his power in Germany from 1933–1934? The economic eﬀects of the Great Depression led to increased support for the extremist political parties such as ● the Communist Party on the left and ● the NSDAP (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei = National Socialist German Workers’ Party, commonly known in English as the Nazi Party) on the right. President Von Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor in 1933. As head of government, Hitler used his position to consolidate Nazi control. ● The Nazis dominated the police: ● → broke up any opposition meetings ● + outlawed public meetings on the basis of these being a threat to public safety. ● After the Reichstag Fire ● → Hitler got Von Hindenburg to pass a decree ● = suspending all articles in the constitution that guaranteed personal liberty and key freedoms. ● → Political opponents were arrested and sent to concentration camps. ● In the elections the Nazis still did not have a clear majority, despite the intimidation and propaganda. ● So, Hitler: ● banned the Communists from the Reichstag. ● got the support of the Centre Party. ● arranged to get the Reichstag to agree to the passing of the Enabling Act that allowed him to make laws by decree ● centralised the government by taking away the powers of the state governments ● destroyed the free trade union movement ● banned the Social Democrats and Communist Party. ● BUT, by early 1934 more left-wing elements within the Nazi Party began to oppose Hitler’s authority ● = SA (Stormtroopers) led by Ernst Rohm. They were interested in the socialistic elements of Nazism ● → wanted full socialistic state in Germany. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 87

Case study 2 ● BUT, German Wehrmacht (Army) did not favour the SA. ● → So, on 30 June 1934 Hitler’s SS purged the ranks of the SA (Night of the Long Knives) = 400 SA members were murdered including Rohm. ● → SS = the new elite force and the Army aligned itself with the Nazi Party. When von Hindenburg died in 1934, Hitler merged the positions of president and chancellor → took title of ‘Führer’. ● Total loyalty was demanded of all Germans. ● Germany = police state. ● SS under Heinrich Himmler = ruthless and brutal. ● Ran the concentration and labour camps. ● Himmler also controlled the Gestapo. ● Most Germans understood that resistance to the Nazis would be futile. 2 How did the Nazis develop their racial ideology? He drew his ideas from For example, ‘research’ done by Fischer Hitler’s ideas scientific racism and German South West Africa (Namibia) were built on eugenics of the time. In ‘proved’ that Africans were inferior to his concept addition, three German Europeans and that Europeans should of race. scientists (Erwin Bauer, exploit Africans as long as they were Eugen Fischer and Fritz useful. Lentz) influenced Hitler. The Aryan race This ‘logic’ was At the bottom of (blonde, blue-eyed the basis of his hierarchy were All other ‘races’ German who was Hitler’s belief Africans, Slavs, were regarded as physically well built in a hierarchy Roma and Sinti inferior. and strong) was at the of races gypsies and Jews. top of the hierarchy of and Social races = the herrenvolk Darwinism. or master race Hitler especially He wanted hated the Jews the Aryans to (violent and dominate and irrational anti- subjugate the Semitism). inferior races. Nazis under Hitler began radically reshaping German society to conform to the ideas of the master race → aimed to create a racially homogenous Aryan national community in Germany. ● One of the ways they did this was by defining everyone who was not German as the ‘other’. 88 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Case study 2 2.1 How was the German nation defined in relation to the ‘other’? The ‘other’ Used = unproductive, stereotyping Aryan race = asocial and undesirable, to judge ‘others’ master race. e.g. the gypsies and the and to isolate Jews of impure blood = them. inferior; therefore needed to be marginalised, segregated and dehumanised. The Aryans were Led superior because to prejudice, of their ancestry, discrimination and survival instinct, pure even death. Hitler promoted blood, intellect and the idea of the need to cleanse capacity to work Germany of all the ‘enemies’ hard. of Germany. Because of Hitler’s In Hitler’s Nazi State, anti- hatred of Jews (anti-Semitism) Semitism was blamed on race. Jews = scapegoat for He hated the Jews and this Germany’s problems and shaped his political philosophy. therefore had to be Jews became the scapegoat eradicated. for Germany’s problems and therefore had to be eradicated. Hitler and Nazis used racial and eugenics laws and policies to ‘purify’ the German ‘nation’. 2.1.1 Positive eugenics Nazi programmes encouraged the breeding of pure Aryans. ● Women were central in the programme to create the pure nation. ● Breeding programmes between ‘Aryan’ women and genetically suitable ‘Aryan’ men (e.g. the SS) were encouraged. ● In 1936 Himmler founded the Lebensborn programme: ● → help SS couples who were ‘racially, biologically and hereditarily valuable families’ select and adopt suitable Aryan children. 2.1.2 Negative eugenics Programmes and laws were introduced to eliminate ‘contaminating’ elements from German society. ● Sterilisation programmes: ● In July 1933 the Sterilisation Law was passed → empowered Nazis to sterilise any persons who suﬀered from diseases or conditions considered hereditary (e.g. feeblemindedness, schizophrenia, alcoholism, homelessness). ● = 300 000 to 400 000 persons were sterilised. Teenagers of mixed race were also sterilised. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 89

Case Unit study1 Unit XX 12 XX ● Department of Gene and Race Care established in 1933. Genetic health courts helped to enforce the law. ● Concentration camps: ● By 1936 homeless people, beggars, alcoholics, prostitutes, homosexuals and juvenile delinquents = sent to concentration camps. ● About 11 000 people = sent to the camps in 1938. ● Euthanasia programme: ● Immediately after start of WWII Hitler signed a decree = allowed for systematic killing (euthanasia) in institutions of handicapped patients considered incurable. Code name for this programme was Operation T4. ● Killings carried out in secret to prevent a reaction from the Catholic Church. Special committees of doctors decided who would be killed: ● at first → done by lethal injection ● later = used carbon monoxide gas. ● Nazi records = 70 273 deaths by gassing at six euthanasia centres. ● The euthanasia programme was the testing ground for Jewish extermination later on. 3 Which groups were targeted by the Nazis? 3.1 Jews Policies in Germany under Hitler = based on anti-Semitism. He regarded Jews as a separate race not created by God. Jews = un-Godly, inhuman and evil. Initially, discriminatory orders made Jews = During 1933 and 1934 life unpleasant for Jews in Germany. segregated from Jewish professions → Lack of opposition in Germany = political, social, and businesses were Hitler’s party encouraged to introduce economic, targeted. Jews were more stringent laws against the Jews educational and excluded from the civil (Most Germans chose to be bystanders.) sporting life. service. When the In 1936 anti-Semitic laws Nazis annexed and actions were relaxed In 1935 the Nuremburg Laws Austria in 1938 because there were so many were passed: these meant that actions against visitors in Germany for the Jews were denied citizenship Jews spread to Olympic Games but the policy and marriages between German Austria. of ‘Aryanisation’ began in citizens and Jewish Germans were earnest the following year forbidden. again. As a response to the murder of a German diplomat in Jewish pupils were expelled Paris in November 1938, the Nazis began a campaign of from schools, Jewish reprisal against Jews throughout Germany. Jewish owned businessmen were forced shops, businesses, homes and synagogues were targeted. to close their shops and in 20 000 Jews were sent to concentration camps and many 1939 Jewish valuables were were killed. This event became known as Kristallnacht confiscated and a curfew was (Night of Crystal Glass). introduced for Jews. 90 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Case study 2 3.2 Sinti and Roma ● Gypsies in Germany = targeted for = extermination like the Jews. ● Many were initially deported as ‘undesirable aliens’. ● Sterilisation laws were used against gypsies. ● A new law (Fight against the Gypsy Menace) required gypsies to register with police. ● They were forced into ghettos and to concentration camps. ● Thousands of gypsy women and children = killed in campaigns across Europe. ● Separate ‘Gypsy family camp’ = established at Auschwitz-Birkenau. Most inmates died from disease, malnutrition, exhaustion from hard labour or gassing and the experiments Dr Mengele did on children. ● Hungarian journalist (Alex Bandy) termed this campaign the ‘forgotten holocaust’. 3.3 Other groups targeted by the Nazis Political opponents Religious opponents Those accused of ‘asocial’ crimes ● Communists ● Jehovah’s Witnesses ● Social Democrats ● Dissident priests ● criminals ● Trade union (e.g. Bonhoeﬀer, ● homosexuals leaders Niemöller and Scheider) 4 Choices that people made This period in history highlights choices that people made in response to Nazi policy and practices. ● People = perpetrators, rescuers, bystanders or resisters. Most people also = victims, e.g. ● Millions of Jews = displaced, suﬀered or murdered ● Many Germans = victims of Nazi propaganda → they became dehumanised 4.1 Perpetrators ● Some were train drivers, secretaries, bureaucrats while others took part in the killings. ● Some were in the Einsatzgruppen (extermination squad) ● others ran the camps. ● Many Nazi Party oﬃcials denied complicity ● → said they were merely following orders. ● → Perpetrators were negatively aﬀected by their violent actions. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 91

Case Unit study1 Unit XX 12 XX 4.2 Bystanders By choosing to be indiﬀer- Some chose to become Bystanders = vast majority ent and passive witnesses, perpetrators and others of people in Germany and bystanders aﬃrm the perpe- became resisters or the world. trators. rescuers. 4.3 Resisters Jewish Fighting Organisation Bystanders who became resisters acted on their conviction and sense of duty to rescue other human Some victims became resisters, beings. e.g. Jews belonging to the Jewish Fighting Organisation rose up against Nazis in the 4.4 Rescuers Warsaw Ghetto in April 1943 In past genocides some people chose to ● → ruthlessly suppressed by courageously speak out or rescue victims. Nazi troops. ● Most of these said they acted on their conviction and morality to resist evil. ● → These rescuers are brave and courageous ● many act as a result of their faith. ● → Many hid Jews or smuggled them out of occupied areas, e.g. ● Le Chambon in France. 5 Responses of the persecuted: exile, accommodation, defiance A variety of forms: ● Partisan activities, e.g. smuggling of messages, food and weapons, sabotage. Acts of defiance ● Military engagement. and resistance ● Victims continued to practise religious and cultural traditions, creating music and art, writing poetry inside ghettos and concentration camps. ● Some managed to flee or go into exile. ● Underground resistance movements were started and anti-Nazi propaganda was used. ● The determination to survive also = a form of resistance. 92 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Case study 2 6 From persecution to mass murder: The Final Solution The Holocaust took place in the context of the WWII. Hitler carried out the Final Solution under the cover of war. ● The Einsatzgruppen followed the troops invading the territories: ● arrested resisters ● killed whoever they thought could resist. ● Nazis carried out forced removals and mass murders of those they considered ‘sub-human’ ● Thousands of Poles = sent to concentration or labour camps. ● Many Jews = forced into overcrowded ghettos → many died from starvation, disease, etc. 6.1 Labour and extermination camps In 1941 the Einsatzgruppen moved into Russia behind invading troops. ● Thousands of Jews ● = rounded up and sent to camps. ● At Chelmo 700 Jews were gassed in vans. ● → Reinforced Hitler’s desire for a ‘Final Solution’ for the Jewish question ● = gassing Jews. ● Death camps under the SS = established for this. ● Extermination centre sites chosen that were close to railway lines = eﬃcient transportation (e.g. Auschwitz, Chelmo, Majdanek and Treblinka). ● Mass deportations of Jews from ghettos began in 1942. ● Many victims died en route due to the heat, lack of food and unhygienic conditions. ● Gas chambers were designed and constructed for the mass gassing of Jews using Zyklon-B pellets. ● Bodies of Jewish victims = cremated. Ashes and bones were intended for fertiliser. ● Around 6 million Jews were killed during the Holocaust. 6.2 Liberation of Auschwitz and Bergen Belsen in 1945 By the end of 1944 = obvious that Germany was losing the war. ● As Nazis retreated to the original German state, they forced camp inmates to go on death marches. ● Weak victims were shot and left to die. ● Russian troops attacking from the East ● = first to discover the Nazi atrocities. ● In January 1945 the Russians liberated Auschwitz-Birkenau. ● British forces liberated Bergen Belsen. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 93

Case Unit study1 Unit XX 12 XX 7 Forms of justice: The Nuremburg Trials Allied forces decided to put the main perpetrators on trial. International military tribunal was set up Some top Nazis escaped trial at Nuremburg. through death, e.g. Hitler and Goebbels both committed ● 22 Nazi leaders were put on trial for crimes suicide. Adolf Eichmann against humanity and other war crimes. managed to disappear in the ● Nazi records provided much evidence and chaos that ensued at the end of detail of the crimes committed. the war. ● The accused did not deny having committed the crimes but did not feel that these were crimes against humanity. ● Some argued that they were merely following orders. ● 13 separate trials were held in Nuremburg between 1945 and 1950 and 12 defendants were sentenced to death. 199 Nazis were put on trial. ● This punitive type of justice = retributive justice. It means that the Nazi perpetrators were punished for their crimes. 7.1 Shortcomings of the process ● Thousands of small perpetrators were not called to account for their actions → could deny complicity for what had happened. ● Victorious Allies carried out the trials. Germany and German people never faced what they had done. ● → For many years = a culture of silence → could be seen as a denial of responsibility. 7.2 Positive outcomes of these trials ● Led to new ways of thinking about how to deal with gross human rights violations ● mechanisms such as restorative justice and truth and reconciliation commissions. Two such commissions = ● Liberian Truth and Reconciliation Commission ● Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) in SA. 94 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Topic 3 Summary and questions Summary of Topic 3 Unit 1: Theories and practice of race ● Scientists in the 19th century (e.g. Samuel Morton) made three claims about race: ● races are separate biological entities, with each race being unique ● there is a strong relationship between biological races and other human qualities, such as moral character and intelligence ● race is therefore a valid scientific category that can be used to explain and predict individual and group behaviour. ● Spencer formulated a theory called Social Darwinism, which later formed the basis for Hitler’s plans for a master race. ● This type of thinking was part of the eugenics movement, which had as its aim the creation of human beings with better qualities by breeding out negative traits. ● Human genome project has shown decisively that ideas of diﬀerences between ‘races’ have no biological basis: ● all human beings belong to the same ‘race’: the human race. Case study 1: Australia and the indigenous Australians ● After the British colonised Australia in the 18th century, the first one hundred and forty years of Australian colonial history was marked by conflict and dispossession. ● In the early 20th century Australia drew on eugenics to develop their own race theories that involved a plan to ‘breed out’ Aborigines by assimilation, resulting in the ‘stolen generation’. ● To achieve this, they established organisations such as the New South Wales Racial Improvement Society and the Eugenics Society of Victoria. ● White Australians were fearful of becoming wiped out as a people, which led to racist immigration laws (to keep people of other ‘races’ out of Australia) and the importation of white children from England. Case study 2: Nazi Germany and the Holocaust ● Hitler, through his desire to create a master Aryan race, developed laws, policies and programmes to destroy all opposition to his plans and all groups he thought would contaminate his master race. ● Through political cunning and intimidation tactics (e.g. the Night of the Long Knives on 30 June 1934) Hitler rose to power and merged the positions of Chancellor and President to became Führer in 1934. ● Hitler, drawing on the work of eugenics in the USA, and German anthropologists researching in the German colonies, developed his plans for a Herrenvolk (master race). © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 95

Topic 3 Unit XX 3 12 Summary and questions ● He used propaganda to cast those he saw as a threat to his master race as the ‘other’, making it possible to enact laws and implement programmes that led to the mass killing of Jews and others seem as opposition or as contaminating the master race. ● This led to the Final Solution (mass extermination of mainly Jews). ● People made choices in this period that defined them as belonging to one of four categories: perpetrators, bystanders, resisters and rescuers. ● Major perpetrators (except for some like Hitler, who committed suicide) went on trial in Nuremburg Trials. 96 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Topic 3 Summary and questions Questions for Topic 3 1 Use the study guide and your own knowledge to answer the questions below: a What was the Nazi symbol called? b Who did the Nazis blame for the Reichstag fire? c Which political squad in Germany carried out the killing of the SA leaders during the Night of the Long Knives? d What event is known as ‘The Night of Broken Glass’? e The German phrase ‘Arbeit Macht Frei’ means ‘______ will set you free’. f The name the Holocaust is derived from the Greek words hólos meaning ‘whole’ and kaustós meaning ‘______’. g In which ghetto was the famous uprising in 1944? h Which people were considered the superior race in Nazi Germany? i What symbol was pinned on Jewish people as identification? j What was the name of the secret police? 2 Interpretation: 2.1 Just as a dove descended on Christ when he was baptised by John the Baptist, so what looks to be an eagle hovers against the light of heaven over an idealised Hitler, with the text: ‘Long live Germany!’ (Courtesy of Dr Robert D. Brooks) © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 97

Topic 1 Unit 313 XX Summary and questions 2.1.1 What symbol is used repeatedly in this picture? 2.1.2 What is the relevance of Hitler having his fist clinched? 2.1.3 What is portrayed in the background? 2.1.4 Why was this specific font and frame chosen by the artist? 2.1.5 Why has an eagle substituted a dove? Refer to the hidden reference to the baptism of Jesus. 2.2 This flyer was issued after regulations were introduced requiring all Jews still in Germany to wear a visible yellow star. The caption says: ‘He who wears this symbol is an enemy of our people.’ 2.2.1 Why were Jews forced to wear a visible yellow star? 2.2.2 Why was this measure especially discriminatory towards the Jewish people? 2.2.3 In what way does the wording and message on the flyer reinforce nationalistic and race ideology? 3 An illustration from Der Stürmer, an anti-Semitic magazine (March 1929), titled ‘Fatherland!’ is shown on the next page. In the top panel, a German family is forced to emigrate because of economic conditions. In the bottom panel, the shop signs all have Jewish names. 3.1 How has the artist of this illustration advanced the cause of anti-Semitism and the master race idea? 3.2 Who would this advertisement be aimed at? 3.3 Comment on the title of the illustration. 98 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Topic 3 Summary and questions © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 99

Topic 1 Unit 313 XX Summary and questions 4 An illustration from Der Stürmer (November 1931) captioned: ‘Where something is rotten, the Jew is the cause’. The names in the background are those of Jews involved in major financial scandals. The apple is named ‘the German economy’. The worm is named ‘Jewish scandals’. Explanation: 4.1 Who is represented by the knife and who is represented by the worm? 4.2 What features (on the worm) represent the Jewish people in a negative manner? 4.3 What is the relevance of the knife cutting the worm? 4.4 What message is portrayed in this illustration? 100 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

14 Topic XX Unit Nationalisms – South Africa, the Middle East and Africa Key question for Topic 4: When is nationalism beneficial and when is it destructive? • What is nationalism? UNIT 1 Page 102 • Modern origins of nationalism in Europe • What was the link between nationalism and the What is nationalism? Industrial Revolution? • How did the rise of the middle class contribute to nationalism? • Theory of nationalism as an imagined community CASE STUDY 1a Page 109 • How did African organisations lead to the rise of African nationalism? South Africa – The rise • How did World War II influence the rise of African of African nationalism nationalism TOPIC 4 101–164 • Diﬀerent types of African nationalism Nationalisms – South Africa, the Middle East and Africa CASE STUDY 1b Page 123 • How did Afrikaner nationalism begin to rise? • Afrikaans language, social, cultural and economic South Africa – The movements rise of Afrikaner • How did Afrikaner leaders use the idea of Volk to nationalism promote Afrikaner nationalism? • Afrikaner nationalism in power – towards apartheid CASE STUDY 2 Page 135 • What are the origins of Arab and Jewish nationalism? The Middle East • The Balfour Declaration • Origins and establishment of the state of Israel after World War II • How do the Palestinian and Israeli perspectives on the 1948 war diﬀer? • Broader Arab nationalism in the region • The question of Palestine • The Arab-Israeli conflict CASE STUDY 3 Page 149 • Early nationalism in the ‘Gold Coast’ • World War II: Influence on nationalism From ‘Gold Coast’ to • Mass-based movements after World War II Kwame Ghana Nkrumah, pan-Africanism and African socialism • The Convention People’s Party and independence • Ghana’s beginning as an independent nation UNIT 2 Page 156 • Debates about nationalism The positive and • Positive faces of nationalism negative features of • Negative face of nationalism nationalism © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 101

1X Topic XX Unit What is nationalism? Key question: What is nationalism and how did it originate and spread? 1 What is modern nationalism? A feeling of belonging to a nation leads to loyalty A nation has a What is modern Unity definable identity nationalism? Nationalism arises in a geo-political area or state 2 How did nationalism originate? Before nationalism societies were mainly feudal: ● Ordinary people = subjects of king who ruled by divine plan. ● Churches (ie: powerful institutions) reinforced authority of lineages ● = princes, kings, chiefs ● this idea was sustained all over the world for 1000s of years. Modern idea of nations/nationalism: ● First emerged in Western Europe during 1700s and 1800s ● new social classes challenging rule of old feudal kingdoms/empires ● philosophers (e.g. Jean Jacques Rousseau) alerted French people to ‘will of the majority’. ● Aim: achieve ‘national sovereignty’ of the people rather than accept absolutist rule of French kings ● = French Revolution in 1789. 102 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 1 2.1 The impact of the French Revolution: 1789–1795 New social The French When France Nationalism classes were Revolution was threatened arose in Western challenging old introduced by invasion, a Europe in the feudal kingdoms the concept of feeling of unity 17th and 18th and empires. the will of the and loyalty centuries. majority. arose. 2.2 The impact of Napoleonic rule: 1795–1815 Napoleon’s He built defeated subjects Extended French Believed in a strong, rose up against rule across strict rule and united French French rule Europe. control with Empire. due to the rise little liberalism. of nationalism against Napoleon. 2.3 The impact of the decisions made at the Congress of Vienna, 1815 An attempt to revert to the Old Order stimulates nationalism in Europe. Liberal and Conservative Try to suppress Greece, the democracy, national Netherlands liberalism and revolutions and Belgium rulers: nationalism to occur in 1830 became reclaim their independent. thrones. and 1848: 3 How did nationalism spread? ● 19th century Europe = set of civil wars ● signalled awakening of European nations ● = major revolutions in 1830 + 1848 ● 1830 revolutions: occurred across Europe: ● France → July Revolution = overthrow of King Charles X of France, creation of constitutional monarchy © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 103

Unit 1 XX ● United Kingdom of the Netherlands: Belgian Revolution = Belgian independence from the Netherlands in 1832 ● Greece: establishment of independent Greece after decade-long struggle against Ottoman Empire ● Poland: November Uprising against Russian Empire – though crushed by Russia, helped to forge Polish nationalism ● 1848 revolutions = series of political upheavals throughout Europe: ● began: France, February ● spread to: parts of Europe + Latin America ● over 50 countries aﬀected. Upshot → establishment of nation states = helped shape Europe along nationalist lines 3.1 Significance of the 1830 and 1848 Revolutions on the development of nationalism In some countries the conservative rulers relied on force to stay in control and many civil wars broke out as the people wanted nationalist movements to be recognised. ● In France in 1830 → King Charles X was overthrown and a constitutional monarchy was established. ● In Poland in 1830 → the Poles rose against the Russian Empire: ● → although the revolution was crushed, Polish nationalism grew. ● In 1848 → nationalist revolutions broke out in France, the German states, the Italian states and Austria: ● → but the hold by the aristocracy and military in these countries was still too strong to bring about true reform. 3.2 Germany and Italy ● Zollverein (toll union) in the north German states stimulated unity under Prussian leadership. ● Bismarck, the Prussian nationalist, took the lead, and after three wars, united the Germans into a ‘new’ nationalist German state: ● created a strong power in central Europe for first time in European history ● by the end of the century, became greatest power in Europe: industrious people + great resources in coal + iron ● nationalism really took root in Europe ● Revolts in the 8 Italian states stimulated Italian nationalism against mainly foreign rule: ● under the nationalists, Cavour and Garibaldi, Italy was liberated and united under an Italian king. 104 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 1 By 1900: ● Newly unified nation Germany + newly reunified USA (after Civil War) had begun to overtake Britain as world’s leading industrial powers ● Industrialisation: provided USA + Europe with financial, organisational, technological resources to expand power ● → also: could expand influence throughout world ● + their aims made easier: ● pursuit of new markets for products ● search for cheap resources/raw materials for industries, ● new opportunities for capital investments, ● new agricultural lands for food for growing populations. New Imperialism Berlin Conference 1884–853 Scramble for Africa ● non-industrial ● initiated domination of ● outcome of Berlin societies unable Africa Conference: General Act to thwart ● regulated European of the Berlin Conference economic colonisation + trade – formalisation of encroachment, in Africa during New Scramble for Africa military Imperialism period ● colonisation laid seeds domination, ● coincided with Germany’s for nationalism in Africa political sudden emergence as an ● colonised countries colonisation imperial power tried to unite people ● India, Southeast ● called for by Portugal, in eﬀort to regain Asia, most of organised by Bismarck independence Africa under ● started period of increased ● middle class tended European/US colonial activity by to initiate nationalist control by 1900 European powers movements – although ● destroyed most at times they benefited existing forms of most from colonialism African autonomy, self- through education + governance economic opportunities 4 Link between the Industrial Revolution, rise of middle class and nationalism Political revolutions and industrial growth led to changes in society. Industrialisation in Europe strengthened and entrenched nationalism in Europe by 1900 and in Africa during the first half of the 20th century. ● New Imperialism ● Because of Industrial Revolution, new products were developed and exported to new buyers in new markets. ● Rivalry and competition added to conflict and tension in Africa among the European colonisers. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 105

Unit 1 XX ● In 1885 Bismarck from Germany called together the Congress of Berlin to solve disputes and Africa’s political, colonial boundaries were entrenched ● nation states were introduced in Africa without consultation with the Africans. ● → colonisation that had its roots in the economic prosperity of the Industrial Revolution laid the foundations for nationalism in Africa ● = colonised countries began to unite their people in an eﬀort to regain their independence. ● Economic prosperity from Industrial Revolution – ● = a new middle class arose that supported nationalism and the ideas of unity, development and wealth: ● middle classes began to have more of a say in governments and the policies they made ● promoted the ideas of a national identity, unity and cohesion in society. ● In colonised countries ● middle-class leaders stimulated the rise of popular nationalist movements against conservative rule ● World War II (WWII) stimulated the rise of African and Asian nationalism against colonial rule. ● → The colonies began to pressurise the colonisers for freedom and decolonization began. 5 The theory of nationalism as an imagined community This idea is based on the book Imagined Communities by Benedict Anderson (1983). He promotes the idea that a nation is a socially constructed community that relies mostly on perceptions and feelings. ● Members that make up a nation are bound by a mental image or aﬃnity rather than an actual one, e.g. ● → claim to be a united force based on a proud shared heritage and history, language, culture, customs, literature, etc. ● These feelings of belonging and other nationalist ideas were spread through Europe by the invention of printing. ● Powerful symbols were adopted to express national identity. ● Patriotism, militarism and nationalism made for a very powerful and dangerous combination of forces ● → often destructively deployed to expand territory and power ● BUT = also to defend the imagined community. 106 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Case study 1X Topic XX Unit South Africa Key question: How did African nationalism and Afrikaner nationalism develop in South Africa? 1 Background: context for the rise of African and Afrikaner nationalism ● no South Africa before 1910 British ● Britain defeated Boer Republics in South African War (1899–1903) ● four separate colonies: Cape, Natal, Orange River, colonies in SA Transvaal colonies ● → ruled by Britain ● needed support of white settlers in colonies to retain power ● 1908 → 33 white delegates met behind closed doors to Union of South negotiate independence for Union of South Africa ● views of 85% of country’s future citizens (black people) not even considered ● British wanted investments protected, labour supplies Africa assured: agreed to give political/economic power to white settlers ● Union Constitution of 1910 placed political power in hands of white citizens Cape ● small number of educated black, coloured citizens allowed Province to elect few representatives to Union parliament (old Cape ● only whites had vote Colony) New nation ● ‘settler nation’ = no room for blacks with rights ● white citizens called selves ‘Europeans’ ● all symbols of new nation = European, e.g. ● language, religion, school history ● African languages, histories, culture seen as inferior © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 107

Case study 1 XX Racism in the new nation: ● Africans seen as members of inferior ‘tribes’ ● could practise traditions in ‘native’ reserves ● in settler (white) nation = required only as workers in farms, mines, factories owned by whites ● black people denied political rights, cultural recognition, economic opportunities 1910 → large numbers of black South African men forced to become migrant workers on mines, factories, expanding commercial farms. ● 1913 Natives Land Act → worsened situation: ● land allocated to black people by Act = largely infertile, unsuitable for agriculture. Land Act, segregation policies (including in work and economy) and World economic depressions (Great Depression that started in USA) resulted in forced migration of people (blacks and white) in South Africa in the 1920s, 30s, 40s: ● 1 000s of poor white + black tenant farmers forced oﬀ land, into cities ● some = domestic workers/worked in industry ● did not have such strong ties to old rural/ethnic identities ● → two forms of nationalism emerged in SA: policies to sought to unify black wanted to unify favour Afrikaner South Africans Afrikaners businesses, workers African Nationalism Afrikaner nationalism in ‘new’ South nationalism Africa mobilise against ensure political, to gain control of increasing oppression economic, social exclusion government in (segregationist policies of black people from years after Union of white rule) ‘white’ South Africa 108 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Case study 1a The rise of African nationalism Key question: How did the rise of African nationalism lead to democracy in South Africa? 1 Late 19th and early 20th centuries 19th century: ● Western-educated African, coloured, Indian middle class grew up mainly in Cape + Natal ● = mostly professional men (doctors, lawyers, teachers, newspaper editors) ● proud of their African, Muslim, Indian heritage ● embraced idea of progressive ‘colour-blind’ western civilisation that could benefit all people. South African War (Boer War) ● Many African, coloured, Indian men + women had supported British forces ● → result: suﬀered death + destruction of property ● so, expected British government to: ● restore property ● defend their rights to land ● provide education ● + provide opportunity after war. But this did not happen: Instead: ● Years before Union: ● black leaders horrified to see how British government – ● was prepared to hand over all power in new Union to whites ● accept that black citizens remained a racially oppressed + exploited population. ● So, black leaders formed organisations ● = to protest against intensifying racial laws + racial nature of new Union and laws. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 109

Case study 1a XX 2 African organisations that led to the rise of African nationalism 2.1 The African People’s Organisation feared that formed by group Dr Abdurahman Britain would of coloured After South joined APO after not protect right political leaders African War return from of middle class in Cape Town Scotland men of all races to vote by 1910 Dr Abdurahman = enormously popular among = 20 000 coloured people members became president of APO in 1905 remained leader of APO became outspoken critic of Britain + strong supporter of non- until his death in 1940 racial South African nation ● At first: APO did not concern itself with rights of black South Africans: ● realisation → oppressed racial groups must work together to achieve anything. ● So, delegation sent to London in 1909 to get rights for coloured (‘coloured’ then = ‘everyone who was a British subject in South Africa and who was not a European’) → failed. 2.2 Natal Indian Congress ● = important influence in development of non-racial African nationalism in South Natal Indian Congress (NIC) Africa. ● possibly first organisation in South Africa to use word ‘congress’ ● formed in 1894 to mobilise Indian opposition to racial discrimination in Colony ● founder: MK Gandhi → would later lead massive peaceful resistance (Satyagraha) to colonial rule: forced Britain to grant independence to India, 1947 ● NIC organised many protests = campaigned for Indian rights ● 1908: hundreds of Indians gathered outside Johannesburg mosque in protest against law that forced Indians to carry passes ● passive resistance campaigns of Gandhi + NIC succeeded in Indians not having to carry passes ● BUT failed to win full citizenship rights ● NIC did not join united national movement for rights of all citizens until 1930s, 1940s 110 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Case study 1a 2.3 The South African Native National Congress to 1920 In response to Union in 1910, young African leaders (Pixley ka Isaka Seme, Richard Msimang, George Montsioa, Alfred Mangena) worked with established leaders of South African Native Convention to promote formation of a national organization: ● Aim: form national organisation to unify various African groups ● 8 January 1912: first African nationalist movement formed at a meeting in Bloemfontein in those days ● = South African National Natives Congress (SANNC) Africans called ● attended by traditional chiefs, teachers, writers, ‘natives’ by white intellectuals, businessmen government ● most delegates had received missionary education ● strongly believed in 19th century values of ‘improvement’ and ‘progress’ of Africans into a global European ‘civilisation’ + culture. ● 1924 → SANNC changed name to African National Congress (ANC) ● = assert African identity. 2.3.1 SANNC / ANC tactics ● Avoided mass mobilisation, although some leaders active in worker strikes, anti- pass protests in early 1920s: ● instead: persuade white government to reform by writing letters, organising petitions, sending delegations to meet British + South African politicians ● May 1912: SANNC launched own newspaper Abantu Batho (The People) published in five languages ● 1914: organised delegation to Britain → ask British government to put pressure on Union government to withdraw Land Act ● activities = ‘the politics of petition’. ● ANC until 1940s: ● mostly did not seek to mobilise mass resistance ● partly due to poor organisation + lack of funds ● partly due to middle-class nature of ANC leadership ● preferred using persuasion, petitions, delegations instead of mobilisation ● → contrasted sharply with popular organisations: Industrial and Commercial Workers Union (ICU) ● most rural black South Africans → not attracted by nationalism it presented. However, there were events that contributed to growing unity among black people, e.g. ● the Bambatha uprising in 1906 ● mass resistance campaigns in the Orange Free State in 1913, when women demonstrated against being forced to carry passes ● in 1918 Charlotte Maxeke and the Bantu Women’s League launched an anti-pass campaign to end the use of passes for black women completely ● illegal occupation of government land near Bulhoek in 1921 resulting in the Bulhoek Massacre. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 111

Case study 1a XX 2.4 The Industrial and Commercial Workers Union African protest movements that helped foster growing African nationalism: ● 1920s: biggest = Industrial and Commercial Workers Union (ICU) ● formed in 1919 ● leader = Clements Kadalie, Malawian worker ● had led successful strike of dockworkers in Cape Town ● mostly active among farmers + migrant workers ● BUT, only temporarily away from their farms = very diﬃcult to organise. Protest action ICU’s successes ICU’s failings ● ● ICU activists held ● gave mostly rural ● ICU unable to deliver mass protest people voice to dream of ‘Moses’ meetings demand restoration saving people from ● organised local of their land, e.g. oppression actions = strikes, ● Durban City ● leaders arrested, demonstrations Council’s meetings + over grievances, practice of campaigns banned, e.g. dipping, prohibited from ● low wages, disinfecting organising on mine evictions, migrant workers compounds brutality like cattle ● by 1930 → of police + ● branches all over virtually employers. SA. disappeared. 2.4.1 The influence of working class struggles in the towns 1920–1940 Most ANC leaders showed little interest in mobilising growing numbers of African workers in towns result: African workers also showed little interest in nationalist movement until 1940s ● but: resistance of ordinary black workers took other forms ● hidden struggles of individual workers: ● pretending to be ill, deserting jobs if things became too hard, theft or breaking equipment. 112 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Case study 1a After First World War: ● Worker militancy became increasingly organised = trade unions + by South African Communist Party (SACP) One of first trade unions = Industrial Workers of Africa (IWA) ● appealed for militant working class unity that was diﬀerent from middle-class nationalism of ANC ● led campaigns against pass laws ● leaders active in organising number of strikes in 1920s Slogans of IWA: Unite as work- Let there no You are all There is only one ers, unite! Forget longer be any talk labourers. Let way to freedom, the things that of Basutu, Zulu or labour be your black workers divide you Shangaan common bond! There were divisions among ANC leaders – some younger members, mainly from Johannesburg, wanting to support worker action, while older more middle class leaders e.g. Sol Plaatjie, wanted moderation, and saw younger members as being socialist. February 1920: over 70 000 black miners went on strike → 21 mines forced to close down: 1918: Sol Plaatje: “I had to attend the Native Congress at Bloemfontein to prevent the spread among our people of the Johannesburg socialist propaganda… The ten Transvaal delegates came to the Congress… with a determination that was perfectly astounding to our customary native demeanour at conferences. They spoke almost in unison, in short sentences, nearly all of which began and ended with the word ‘strike’.” (Source: Cited in Bundy, C. Remaking the Past: New perspectives in South African History, UCT Press, Cape Town, 1986) ● government called in police + army ● workers surrounded in their compounds, beaten, driven back to work at gunpoint ● biggest strike in South Africa’s history until great strikes of 1980s. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 113

Case study 1a XX Suppression of 1920 revealed weakness of black worker organisation in early period of South Africa’s industrialisation: Most mineworkers thought of selves as farmers not enough unity not yet strong for black resistance enough sense of Weaknesses of black African nationalism worker organisations not enough momentum for national resistance movement 1930s: ● black workers began to find eﬀective way of organising ● enabled them to challenge employers ● win improvements in wages + working conditions. Growth of manufacturing industry: 1930s and 40s: ● growing urban working class permanently settled in towns ● focus of black resistance shifting to cities ● workers in specific industries formed industrial trade unions ● many union leaders = members of SACP ● → SACP had white and black leaders ● SACP worked mainly in black unions because white workers often sided with employers. 114 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Case study 1a Worker militancy in cities = important factor in: ● bringing about the changes in ANC ● driving rise of African nationalism. It was clear that two kinds of black African nationalism were developing. 2.5 Two kinds of nationalism ANC in 1930s Communist leaders Africanist leaders ● divided ● ZK Mathews, JB Marks, ● young black activists organisation John Nkadimeng, also called for more ● established Govan Mbeki active leadership of leaders supported ● joined ANC, called for mass resistance workers’ demands more active leadership ● suspicious of for better wages + of mass demands involvement of whites equal laws ● promoted non-racial, with both established ● did not support inclusive form of South leadership and confrontation/ African nationalism socialists socialist ideas of ● ie: first stage on way to ● Anton Lembede, communists establishing socialist Nelson Mandela, state Walter Sisulu Basic division = between non-racial South African nationalism and Africanist kind of nationalism: ● → present in ANC for most of its history. Showed in election of Dr AB Xuma: ● 1940: elected president of ANC ● medical doctor educated in USA + Europe ● had respect of both old and young leaders ● rebuilt ANC structures ● presided over transition into mass nationalist movement. ● BUT, 2nd half of 1940s: ● left wing began to dominate ANC ● Xuma too conservative ● → lost leadership in 2nd half of 1940s. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 115

Case study 1a XX 3 How did World War II influence the rise of African nationalism? There were three main ways that WW II influenced the rise of African nationalism: ● through the Atlantic Charter ● AB Xuma’s African claims in relation to this Charter ● influence of soldiers returning from War. 3.1 The Atlantic Charter and AB Xuma’s African claims Churchill and Roosevelt issued the Atlanatic Charter in 1941, describing the world they would like to see after WWII: ● Charter: ‘… desire to see no territorial changes that do not accord with the freely expressed wishes of the peoples concerned.’ ● ‘… respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live’ To the ANC and African nationlists generally, the Atlantic Charter → amounted to promise for freedom in Africa once war was over. Gave rise to Xuma’s African claims issued by ANC in 1943: ● End to all facism demanded ● Self-government expected as a right ● Right to choose own form of government expected. 3.2 Influence of returning soldiers ● Britain recruited thousands of African soldiers to fight in its armies (nearly two million Africans recruited as soldiers, porters, scouts for Allies during war): ● persuade Africans to sign up: Britain called it ‘a war for freedom’ ● soldiers returning home expected Britain to honour their sacrifice ● → recognition they expected did not arrive ● became bitter, discontented – had fought to protect interests of colonial powers only to return to exploitation + indignities of colonial rule. 4 1945: Pan-African Manchester Congress, England Arising from discontent of not having expectations of frredom fulfilled after WWII, this conference = turning point in its attempt to address needs of all black people. ● → Pan-Africanism began to stress common experiences of blackness ● sought liberation of all black people around world. 116 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Case study 1a Pan-Africanism ● proved very popular among nationalist African leaders ● oﬀered way to overcome both regionalism + ethnic divides ● stressed commonalities + common oppression ● by 1950s, Pan-Africanism influenced almost every African nationalist leader ● in SA: resulted in increased militancy of ANC Youth League (helped oust Xuma as president, 1949) ● precipitated PAC split from ANC, 1959 5 Different types of African nationalism The diﬀerent types of African nationialism (more inlcusive vs. more radical) that emerged before and after WWII resulted from the situation in the country: Government ● estimated almost one third of people in African reserves commission: had no land and/or no cattle at all ● 60% of families = less than five cattle 1948 through poverty People ● ● black population in cities almost doubled in size (i.e. forced 1930–1946) towns: not enough housing in locations into towns ● ● towns: food prices rising rapidly ● number of homeless people’s movements: people Shanty invaded land around Johannesburg ● built informal settlements towns ● biggest = ‘Sofasonke’ (we will all die together) – led by James Mpanza Increased militancy of black trade unions: ● 1945 = 119 industrial trade unions: paid up membership of 158 000 workers ● 1940–1945: more than 52 000 workers in strike action of longer than five days ● many strikes succeeded in winning benefits for workers: gave them confidence ● 1946: second great mineworkers’ strike: ● over 60 000 black miners went on strike for better wages and replacement of compound system with family housing ● retaliation: police, army surrounded miners in compounds + forced them back to work at gunpoint → 12 miners killed; over 1000 injured. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 117

Case study 1a XX ANC leadership realised that unless they changed to reflect political + economic demands of new social forces, someone else soon would. 5.1 The influence of ANC Youth League on types of nationalism Formation Leadership changes Self-reliance/racial pride ● 1944: younger ANC ● 1949: Dr Xuma ● Youth League’s leaders: Anton replaced as Programme of Action Lembede, Walter President by Dr adopted by ANC as Sisulu, Oliver James Moroka - had whole Tambo, Nelson support of Youth ● more Africanist Youth Mandela League League – Anton ● adopted ‘Programme ● Walter Sisulu elected Lembede – rejected of Action’ that Secretary General political cooperation was statement of ● Nelson Mandela with white, Indian increasingly militant + Oliver Tambo activists + Africanist form of elected to National ● need for black self- African nationalism Executive Committee reliance, racial pride Sisulu, Mandela, Tambo: ● influenced by Africanist ideals of self-reliance ● realised that united front was needed against apartheid government Division + tension → resulted in disgruntled members of ANC breaking away to form PAC. 5.2 Influence of the Congress of the People on nationalism The Congress of the People directly impacted on African nationalism, and was a key catalyst in the formation of the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC). Kliptown, 1955: ● Congress of the People consisted of: representatives from ANC, Coloured People’s Congress, SA Indian Congress + white Congress of Democrats: ● → Freedom Charter aﬃrmed non-racial African nationalist tradition: aim: widening definition of proclaimed: ‘South Africa belongs to all nation and thus of nationalism who live in it’ Africanists rejected this: called for even more militant political actions 118 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Case study 1a Africanists: ● 1959: tried to get ANC to repudiate Freedom Charter + Congress Alliance (did not succeed in this) ● Aim: become exclusively African nationalist movement Formation ● 1959: led by Robert Sobukwe, Africanists left ANC ● PAC slogans: ‘Africa for the Africans’ – ‘Amafrika Poqo’ of PAC (‘Africans standing alone’) Increased ● PAC appeared more militant than ANC ● called for national anti-pass campaign: → led to massacres militancy at Sharpeville, Langa Banning ● never able to attract large following of PAC ● virtually fell apart when banned 5.3 Influence of the revival of Africanist tradition inside South Africa ● 1970s: leaders of the Black Consciousness Movement (eg: Steve Biko) revived tradition: ● black consciousness = very influential in shaping people’s ideas BUT has not had mass support as political movement. Standing in contrast to radical, exclusive nationalism of Africanists was the non- racialism of the ANC. 5.4 Non-racialism and the United Democratic Front Morogoro conference: Tanzania – 1969 ● ANC in exile re-aﬃrmed inclusive non-racial African nationalism ● ANC went beyond only cooperating with South Africans of other races ● welcomed whites, Indians, coloureds as full members. Foreshadowed the broadbased co-operation typified by the United Democratic Front (UDF) in the 1980s, after Soweto uprising. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 119

Case study 1a XX 1976: watershed year inside SA – ANC: ● Soweto: protests against apartheid government’s discriminatory education policies ● aftermath: established leading role of ANC in liberation struggle ● ANC: organisation best able to channel, organise students seeking overthrow of apartheid ● ANC’s non-racialism that came to dominate the form of liberation amongst blacks that was unfolding ● Soweto uprising: ● = turning point in the struggle against apartheid ● → shifted the focus of struggle to within SA. Post-Soweto period Late 1970s ● Government suppression ● Initially study groups had little/no ● growing curiosity among urban contact with one another black people and growing ● black consciousness + student political awareness organisations + trade unions = ● → study groups develop in attempts to create united movement townships across SA within SA ● study, discuss Charterist ● aim: co-ordinate liberation struggle ideals, read ANC ● ANC realised need for broad literature. organisation based inside SA. United Democratic Front (UDF) PLUS ● Momentum resulted in formation, launch of United Democratic Front (UDF) ● → 20 August 1983 community hall in Rocklands, Mitchell’s Plain ● slogan: ‘UDF Unites, Apartheid Divides’ ● mobilisation of South Africans to form united resistance against apartheid. Move towards broad-based national movement: ● UDF: throughout 1980s = commitment to non-racial, democratic South Africa ● people of South Africa organised selves into hundreds of democratic community based bodies - state could not destroy by arresting a few leaders ● by time Mandela was released: very broad-based national movement in place - defined nationalism in non-racial, non-ethnic terms ● ‘nationalism’ = all South Africans ● inclusive nationalism – foundation for national reconciliation and nation-building. 120 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Case study 1a 5.5 National reconciliation and nation-building 5.5.1 Nation-building In 1989: FW de Klerk elected leader of National Party ● September 1989 - elected State President ● replaced PW Botha ● had led South Africa since 1984 ● had imposed State of Emergency in 1985, which as repeatedly renewed. Nelson Mandela: ● 11 February 1990 (27 years of incarceration) Nelson Mandela released from Victor Verster Prison outside Paarl ● greeted at gates with wife (Winnie Madikizela-Mandela) by 1 000s of supporters. Diﬃculties ahead: ● after bitter division between black + white - much animosity to overcome ● many who did not want new, non-racial South Arica, e.g. ● right-wing Afrikaners (e.g. Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging, known as AWB) + more militant PAC ● wanted to see narrow nationalism in place: South Africa for whites only (AWB)/for blacks only (PAC). ● → Vital for success: ● find ways to reconcile diﬀerent ‘racial’ groups → for nation-building. CODESA: Convention for a Democratic South adopted Africa (CODESA) began negotiations Declaration of on formation of multiracial Intent, committed transitional government → itself to December 1991 + new constitution extending political ‘undivided South rights to all groups Africa’ followed Interim Constitution + South Africa’s first non-racial by further democratic elections: 27 April 1994 multiparty negotiations Characteristics of negotiations ● inclusive ● led to former sworn enemies sitting down, discussing issues that aﬀected country as a whole ● reconciliation between former enemies started ● worked together to lay foundations for new SA nation → would be built on principles of human rights, non-racial national inclusivity. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 121

Case study 1a XX Mandela’s eﬀorts to bring about reconciliation: ● appointed FW de Klerk as one of deputy presidents when he formed Government of National Unity (GNU) in 1994 ● made a point of meeting with Besty Verwoerd = wife of main architect of apartheid, HF Verwoerd ● became staunch supporter of Springboks ● → SA hosted, won Rugby World Cup in 1995. 5.5.2 Reconciliation ● set up in terms of Promotion of National Unity and Truth and Reconciliation Act, No. 34 of 1995 under leadership of Archbishop Desmond Tutu Reconciliation ● Witnesses identified as victims of gross human rights Commission violations during apartheid invited to give statements about experiences (TRC) ● some witnesses selected for public hearings TRC ● perpetrators of violence could also give testimony, request amnesty from both civil + criminal prosecution process ● for people on two sides of divide created by apartheid – Purpose through confession + forgiveness – to reconcile with one another ● commit to living in unity as South Africans 5.5.3 Nation-building and reconcilliation Constitution of South Africa ● South African Constitution (Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act, No. 108 of 1996) ● = another step in process of national reconciliation + nation-building because: ● writing of Constitution was inclusive process ● content entrenched in law rights of all South Africans (in Bill of Rights) ● protect rights of cultural minorities too ● celebrates cultural diversity within single South African nation. Nation-building requires government to rule consistently with policies – requires citizens to imagine selves as part of nation and contribute towards it. 122 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Topic Unit Case 1X 1b Topic Unit XX study 1X XX The rise of Afrikaner nationalism Key question: How did Afrikaner nationalism evolve in South Africa between 1900 and 1994? 1 How did Afrikaner nationalism begin to rise? Afrikaner nationalism (Volkseenheid) was a political ideology born in the late 19th century, but with its roots in the Great Trek (1835–1846) and the Boer Republics: ● Movement of Dutch-speaking colonists, primarily from Cape, up into interior of southern Africa Great Trek ● in search of land ● → wanted to establish own homeland, independent of British rule ● Great Trek came to symbolise determination and courage of Boers ● → yearning for independence and freedom Great Trek helped to establish Boer Republics in 19th century Boer ● ● Boers defined themselves against British and Africans ● gave rise to notion that Afrikaners in South Africa were republics ‘chosen people’ This notion of Afrikaners as the ‘chosen people’ was influenced by: ● Afrikaner Bond (late 1800s to 1910) ● anti-British sentiments = strong among Afrikaners, especially because of Boer Wars (South African War) ● desire to keep themselves a distinct group, separate from English and Africans. Gave rise to a narrow Afrikaner a moderate nationalism nationalism (wanted (open to collaborate nothing to do with with others) other groups) ● first champion = Stephanus du Toit, minister of Dutch Reformed Church ● played leading role in establishment of Society of True Afrikaners (Die Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners, GRA): Paarl, 14 August 1875 ● published first Afrikaans-language newspaper, Die Afrikaanse Patriot ● widely read → became powerful means of promoting Afrikaans language + Afrikaner nationalism. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 123

Case study 1b XX Du Toit ● put forward notion that Afrikaners = distinct nationality with fatherland (South Africa) + own language (Afrikaans) ● Afrikaner Volk’s (nation) destiny to rule South Africa ● most important achievement in fostering Afrikaner nationalism = establishment of Afrikaner Bond – 1880: played prominent role in SA politics Du Toit’s notion of Afrikaners led to a political split between narrow and more moderate Afrikaner nationalists: Split between ● 1934 ● group of narrow Afrikaner nationalists (Dr DF narrow Malan, 19 Afrikaner MPs) split from moderate Afrikaner leaders Barry Hertzog, Jan Smuts nationalists and ● just after merging to form United Party (for ‘broader white ruling alliance’) moderates Purified ● formed by DF Malan + breakaway group ● did not have support of all Afrikaners – only few accepted party’s imagined vision of ‘pure’ Afrikaner nation National Party ● emphasised unity of all Afrikaans speaking white people, Volk, against ‘foreign’ elements – blacks, Jews, English-speaking South Africans ● Purified National Party (PNP) had mobilised enough 1948 support – majority of Afrikaans speakers ● won elections; ruled SA until 1994 How did this narrow group of Afrikaner leaders create the idea of an Afrikaner nation that appealed so strongly to so many diﬀerent groups of Afrikaners? ● Economic ● Many Afrikaner farmers, businessmen felt that economy was too heavily dominated by English-speaking, foreign companies ● felt that government economic policies favoured these (English/foreign) business interests ● made it diﬃcult for Afrikaner businessmen to advance ● → THEREFORE, desired to see Afrikaners in control of government = economic driver of Afrikaner nationalism. 124 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Case study 1b ● Great Depression ● Poor whites (bywooners) and black workers driven oﬀ farms ● forced to move to cities to look for work = competing with blacks for employment ● PNP promised to keep blacks out and employ Afrikaners (blacks were ‘painted’ as causing – to some extent – suﬀering of poor Afrikaner whites) ● → THEREFORE, promise to help poor Afrikaner whites = another driver of Afrikaner nationalism (roots in USA Great Depression). ● Cultural ● Movements founded to advance Afrikaner language, culture and religion ● portrayed Afrikaners as an exclusive nation ● → THEREFORE, culture = driver of Afrikaner nationalism. 2 Afrikaans movements: language, social, cultural and economic Economic and cultural issues drove Afrikaner nationalism to unite Afrikaners. ● AIM: political victory to rule over English and blacks. ● Use movements to do this, e.g. ● Language Movement; Broederbond. ● Used economic and labour policy to do this, e.g. ● aﬃrmative action ● colour bar in employment. ● Used media to this, e.g. ● Afrikaans newspapers and magazines spread Afrikaner nationalist ideology (type of propaganda). 2.1 The Afrikaans language movements In the 19th century, there was no single Afrikaner language. In order to develop one Afrikaner language (Afrikaans), language movement was established. ● Important aim: ● → Create single cultural and national identity = unite all Afrikaners. 2.1.1 First Afrikaans Language Movement 1875–1900 ● Beginning: establishment of Die Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners (GRA): Paarl, 1875 ● term ‘Afrikaner’ began to take on narrower association with white Afrikaans speakers → despite people of diﬀerent races/ethnicities speaking it ● GRA’s aim: create Afrikaans language for white Afrikaners, distinct from Dutch ● First Afrikaans Language Movement: ● lacked wide appeal: functioned mainly in Paarl area; only one mouthpiece, Die Patriot ● towards close of 19th century, began to collapse ● Afrikaans movement would only gain momentum again after South African War. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 125

Case study 1b XX 2.1.2 Second Language Movement (1900–1930) Peace of Vereeniging (31 May 1902): ended South African War. Lord Milner gave undertaking to Boers that Dutch would be upheld as oﬃcial language: ● BUT, he reneged on undertaking: government instead began to pursue policy of anglicisation ● anglicising process also continued in former Boer Republics ● force all Afrikaners to speak English – Milner’s regime – schools targeted ● English also became oﬃcial language in Transvaal, Natal ● legislation provided for Dutch language rights in administration, justice, education ● → Resumption of struggle for establishment of Afrikaans: ● no longer restricted to Cape Colony as had been the case with First Movement ● Parents, teachers = aid from Netherlands = started setting up private schools: curriculum could have Christian Afrikaner nationalism focus ● Union of SA formation (1910): helped in advocating establishment of Afrikaans as alternative written medium. Recognition of Afrikaans: ● Act of Parliament: 1925 → Afrikaans obtained oﬃcial recognition ● Bible translated into Afrikaans: 1933 ● Afrikaans developed rapidly as both literary medium + medium of science, technology ● = establishment of four Afrikaans-speaking universities The language movement combined with a re-writing of South African history, which was seen in terms of the struggle of the Afrikaner to find his natural identity in a hostile world filled with enemies: black and the British. ● expressed in new cultural symbols: powder horn, ox-wagon, laager and Bible. 2.2 The Afrikaner Broederbond Jong Zuid Afrika (Young Afrikaner Broederbond Goals of Broederbond South Africa) ● secret society of ● build united ● 1918: formed by small carefully selected Afrikaner Volk based group of Afrikaner Afrikaner men on conservative, intellectuals ● aim: further puritanical religion ● dedicated to Afrikaner ● develop, promote advancement of nationalism in Afrikaans language Afrikaner interests South Africa ● keep Afrikaner workers ● 1919 – became ● gain control of out of clutches of Afrikaner Broederbond South African socialist trade unions government ● promote Afrikaner business 126 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Case study 1b Growth of Broederbond: ● 1930s: grew quickly ● developed exclusive Afrikaner nationalist ideology – would appeal to interests of all Afrikaners ● designed to appeal to those (businessmen, professionals, farmers, workers) who were in some way excluded/exploited under current political system under Smuts ● almost every Afrikaans-speaking leader became member ● tried at every opportunity to influence thinking/policies with ideas 2.3 The Federation of Afrikaner Cultural Associations Broederbond set up separate Afrikaner institutions to help them realise their aims: ● separate cultural institutions alongside existing ones ● Boy Scouts = Voortrekkers ● Red Cross = Noodhulpliga ● National Union of South African Students = Afrikaner Studentebond ● → nearly every aspect of social life had separate Afrikaner organisation. Cultural activity co-ordinated by Federation of Afrikaner Cultural Associations (FAK) → ensured that Afrikaner nationalist ideology, and the creation of a distinct Afrikaner identity, was fostered and encouraged at every level of society. 2.4 Affirmative action in the 1920s and 30s Government: Barry Hertzog – ● 1930s: adopted aﬃrmative action policies ● → to uplift poorest whites (mainly Afrikaans-speaking) ● = Public Service + state-owned South African Railways, Iron and Steel Corporation (ISCOR). Electricity Supply Commission (ESCOM): adopted racial employment policies ● got rid of black/coloured workers/employed whites ● by 1942: almost 10% of Afrikaans-speaking men employed on railways. PLUS: Christian National Trade Unions ● Poor white railway, mineworkers organised into these unions ● appealed to white worker interests: opposed employer’s attempts to employ cheaper black workers + enter agreements with black trade unions ● Sentiments of Trade Unions: ● reflected conservative religion of many recently urbanised Afrikaners ● fascist, anti-black, anti-Jewish sentiments © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 127

Case study 1b XX 2.4.1 Volkskapitalisme Broederbond Reddingsdaadbond ● not anti-capitalist ● formed by Afrikaner businessmen ● but: strongly ● called on Afrikaner workers to save in against foreign Afrikaner banks, shop in Afrikaner shops, buy capital insurance from Afrikaner insurance companies PLUS 1939 Afrikaner Vokskongres (Afrikaner Peoples’ Congress) ● new Afrikaner economic movement should not ‘tolerate the destruction of the Afrikaner nation by adapting to a foreign capitalist system’ ● ‘capture this foreign system and adapt it to our national character.’ 2.5 The media Spread of Afrikaner nationalism ● new emerging Afrikaner print media ● Broederbond started nationalistic Afrikaans language newspapers: Die Burger (DF Malan – first editor), Die Transvaler ● Afrikaner nationalists constructed ‘imagined community’ Afrikaner ‘imagined community’ ● Afrikaners depicted through stories as homogenous nation with heroic past, moral purpose, place among other nations ● ideas spread through print media: Christian-nationalistic journal Koers (Direction), Inspan, books published by Burger Boekhandel publishing house Die Huisgenoot ● ‘A foreign culture is protected by powerful fortresses and citadels. With every new delivery by sea, thousands of cheap English books are distributed throughout the country… Our biggest daily papers, the cinemas, the school system, the language of our courts, the shops with their fashion… the furniture in our houses are all bastions and agents of a foreign culture which claims for itself the right to overrun and conquer the world.’ ● Exclusive type of nationalism: regarded only Afrikaners as belonging to nation (or Volk) ● designed to keep economic, political power in hands of Afrikaners ● keep black people excluded from all aspects of life in South Africa. 128 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Case study 1b 3 How did Afrikaner leaders use the idea of Volk to promote Afrikaner nationalism? Much of Volk notion in SA based on ideas of Abraham Kuyper: ● Dutch politician, journalist, statesman, theologian ● believed in God’s authority over separate spheres of creation ● ‘spheres’ had to be preserved, protected from ideas such as equality, fraternity, freedom of French Revolution ● → all these ideas challenged God’s authority. 3.1 Definition of Volk Paul Kruger ‘God-ordained’ nations ● president of Transvaal Republic, ● Afrikaner theologians later founding member of Nederduitsch also used Kuyper’s ideas as Hervormde Kerk (Dutch Reformed justification for Afrikaners Church, DRC) refusing ‘British-designed’ SA ● referred to history of Afrikaners in SA ● did not wish to co-exist as ‘sacred history’ with Volk as chosen with other ethnic groups as people minority ● Great Trek seen as Exodus from British ● God had created nations: these rule in Cape to Promised Land of Boer nations had God-ordained Republics right to exist as separate ● used Kuyper’s ideas entities ‘Volk’ defined PLUS ● Afrikaner nationalism defined Volk as meaning only white South African Afrikaners – had right to land of SA ● black people regarded as other nations who had to live in own tribal areas 3.2 Volk and its relation to class and race Aim of Afrikaner nationalism = foster of nationhood among Afrikaners ● Afrikaners – God-ordained right to establish exclusive Volk ● only white Afrikaans-speakers regarded as legitimate citizens ● → implications in terms of class, race issues – education, labour, religion. 3.2.1 Volk and its relation to class and race in labour and education Afrikaner nationalism used education both to define + create class in SA ● Volk defined as race distinct from other races ● → Afrikaners became middle, upper classes ● → black people relegated to lower classes. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 129

Case study 1b XX This exclusive defining of Volk resulted from: ● Missionary education of blacks → compete with poor white Afrikaners for jobs ● Economic depression → white Afrikaner unemployment grew = increased competition for jobs ● Aﬃrmative action policies → excluded blacks (educated or not) from white Afrikaner labour market ● promote white (especially Afrikaner) employment opportunities ● aﬃrmative action legislation = e.g. 1911 Mines and Works Act, established ‘Colour Bar’ in employment. Relegation of blacks to lower working class (labourers) through labour policies was reinforced through educational policies. Institute for institute set out to Christian National formed by Broederbond + DRC influence Afrikaner Education educational institutions education of 1939: Afrikaner blacks was special nationalist put developed education programme responsibility of together an called Christian National ‘superior white educational Education (CNE) race’ manifesto manifesto National Party (NP) segregated advocated separate election victory, education system schools for each 1948, gave Afrikaner – favoured whites; of SA’s population nationalists disadvantaged groups: whites, opportunity to fully blacks Africans, Indians, implement CNE coloureds ideology Bantu education: ● name for education for black people ● made clear that it was designed to teach blacks to be ‘hewers of wood and drawers of water’ for white-run economy, society ● disregarded individual’s abilities/aspirations. 130 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Case study 1b 3.2.2 Volk and religion Dutch Reformed Church (DRC) ● initially during 19th century – held pragmatic rather than ideological view of racial segregation, e.g. ● regarded racial segregation as harmonious method of governing heterogeneous country After 20th century economic depression ● changed attitude (also towards education, labour) ● new group of poor (mostly Afrikaner) whites emerged Church involvement (1939) ● ‘The policy of segregation as advocated by the Afrikaner and his church is the holy calling of the Church to see to the thousands of poor whites in the cities who fight a losing battle in the present economic world...The application of segregation will furthermore lead to the creation of separate healthy cities for the non-whites where they will be in a position to develop along their own lines, establish their own institutions and later on govern themselves under the guardianship of the whites.’ Afrikaner state = Christian civilisation ● thus had ‘divine right’ to stay separate, rule surrounding black nations (who were not part of Volk) ● DRC = important institution in creating Afrikaner nationalist identity ● DRC had provided moral, social security to remote Afrikaner farmers throughout 19th century ● later: recreated communities for many thousands of displaced poor Afrikaners entering city ● Church reinforced family values – inculcated idea of women as volksmoeders (mothers of the nation): duty to have many Afrikaner children, bring them up as nationalists. All these influences and factors drove Afrikaners towards an exclusive nationalism = provided Afrikaner nationalist leaders (Malan) with enough white support to win the 1948 election. BUT, an important event took place in 1938 to catalyse emerging Afrikaner nationalism into a powerful united force: ‘Eeufees’ Centenary Celebration of the Great Trek. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 131

Case study 1b XX ‘Eeufees’ Centenary Celebration of the Great Trek ● largest, most ● 9 wagons built, ● 16 December 1838, 100th powerful named after anniversary of Battle of Blood cultural event Voortrekker heroes, River, wagons arrived at that forged travelled from Cape gathering of 100 000 people the ideology Town to Pretoria by on Monument koppie in of Afrikaner diﬀerent routes Pretoria nationalism ● men grew beards, ● laid foundation stone of = ‘centenary women wore Voortrekker Monument celebration of Voortrekker dresses, ● media followed events and Great Trek’, 1938 towns renamed created new version of streets after leaders, historical event wagons became ● made to appear as divinely- social centre of blessed united movement of town’s activity chosen people from foreign ● monuments built all oppression to freedom across along route dangerous interior ● seen by nationalists as ‘awakening’ of long oppressed Afrikaner nation on path towards freedom 4 Afrikaner nationalism in power – towards apartheid 4.1 1940s ● 1948: National Party (NP) of DF Malan had won over support of many middle class Afrikaners, poor Afrikaner workers, small-scale + commercial farmers ● these groups felt threatened by developments in 1940s, especially growth of large, increasingly organised black working class. 4.2 Racist rhetoric ● NP used emotional racist rhetoric: ‘swart gevaar’ + ‘oorstroming’ (black danger + flooding) into cities ● appealed to all groups: white workers (feared competition from black workers), white farmers (lost much labour as Africans moved to cities), white businessmen. 4.3 New policy: Apartheid ● National Party’s policy ● promised to defend interests of all these groups – suppressing black resistance ● also intensify control, exploitation of black labour. 132 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Case study 1b In the 1948 election, the United Party’s policies were attacked by the National Party mainly through use of scare tactics (racist rhetoric). United Party (Prime minister Smuts) National Party (Malan) • aimed at neutralising African resistance • attacked policies of United Party (accommodate some more moderate demands) • rational appeal: some type of sharing of land/ • emotional appeal: made white Afrikaners cities that would allow whites and blacks to believe they would be murdered by blacks or live in peace (but blacks still subjugated) driven out of the country if they did not vote the NP into power • United Party’s appeals to common ‘South Africanism’ not strong enough to counter emotional appeal of Afrikaner nationalism to Afrikaner voters able to use political power of DF Malan’s NP came state to suppress demands of into power = narrow other classes in society = black margin peasants + workers, but also black middle class win: NP able to NP: use control to turn all resources promote Afrikaner 1948 elections towards building nationalism Afrikaner support able to use economic able to take control resources of state of schools, other to benefit Afrikaner state institutions business As the oppressive policies of apartheid were seen to be successful in crushing black resistance and creating opportunities for making huge profits for all white businesses and a high standard of living for all white workers, so other whites also threw their support behind the apartheid government. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 133

Case study 1b XX 5 Afrikaner nationalism today 40 years of nationalist rule: ● Afrikaner capitalists, professionals achieved goal of equality with foreign capital ● established their culture + language. Today: ● Ideology of separate Afrikaner nationalism oﬀers little to Afrikaners in democratic, non-racial SA BUT → still small pockets of extreme, exclusive Afrikaner nationalism today – e.g. Orania. ● Afrikaans literature + art has broken free of old nationalistic controls. 134 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Topic Unit Case 1X 2 Topic Unit XX study 1X XX The Middle East Key question: What are the consequences of the conflict of nationalist aspirations between Palestine and Israel? 1 What are the origins of Arab and Jewish nationalism? Early history of Jews in Palestine and the diaspora: Jews Arabs The Jewish nation, in the modern sense of a Most Arab people in North Africa nation, did not exist until the 19th century. and the Middle East were converted Early herding and farming communities in to Islam from the seventh century Palestine practised Judaism as a religion. onwards. As the Arabs conquered When the Romans occupied Palestine, the territories, the religion spread from Jews rose in revolt. The Romans quelled being an Arab one to a religion the rebellion and persecuted the Jews. practised by many people over Many Jews fled all over the world during a vast area. Arabic became the the diaspora and settled far afield. As dominant language and Arabic capitalism spread, some Jews in Western customs and traditions spread. Europe became wealthy merchants or By the 1500s, the Ottoman Empire manufacturers. Others in Eastern Europe was set up by the Turks. Due to remained poor. Jews tended to live together discrimination and persecution in communities where their traditions, the Arabs rose in local rebellions culture and beliefs helped them to maintain against the Turks. These were their own identity. Anti-Semitism was rife in unsuccessful in bringing about Europe and many Jews were persecuted. change. 1.1 Arab nationalism Due to the founding of the Zionist The first signs of Arab cohesion and unity movement in Europe, many Jews against a common enemy (the Turks) began began returning to Palestine and to manifest itself in a new national identity. demanded a national homeland. Arabs who spoke Arabic and shared a simi- These settlers or Yishuv wanted lar culture united against the Turks (who the land that was settled by the were also Islam). Arabs. These conflicting goals amongst the Palestinians and the Jews led to potential conflict in the region. Britain and France were also interested in establishing spheres of influence in the Middle East region to stabilise and develop economic interests in the region e.g. trade and the Suez Canal. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 135

Case study 2 ● Due to competition between the two colonial powers, Britain colonised Egypt to gain control of the Suez Canal in 1882, but Palestine remained part of Syria under Turkish rule. ● In 1913 these factors gave rise to the First Arab National Congress in 1913 and the publication of the Arab Nationalist Manifesto in 1914, which spelled out the Arabs plans for autonomy. ● → From this Congress emerged a loose Arab nationalist movement that wanted to create a single, united Arab nation that was independent from Turkish rule. ● BUT, it was not yet strong enough to challenge Turkey’s control over the Middle East and the First World War undermined its development. The Arabs In WW I the Arabs expected to become helped the British by independent after the defeating the Turks War. But Britain, France and Russia had other plans: ● They signed the Sykes-Picot Treaty that agreed to split the Turkish territories among themselves. ● Arab nationalism began to focus on anti-Western sentiments and actions as well as an anti-Zionist and anti-Jewish character. Results ● Armed revolts broke out against Britain in Iraq in 1920. ● Egypt rebelled in 1919 and gained independence from Britain in 1922. ● Major armed revolts broke out against Syria in 1926. 1.2 Origins of Zionism: the Jewish nationalist movement ● Started in 1890s in Europe when nationalism was rife. ● Many European countries experienced a growth of strong nationalistic, religious and racial sentiments and ideas. ● → coincided with heightened Anti-Semitism in European societies. ● 1897: Jewish intellectuals and leaders met in Basle, Switzerland to discuss the possibility of a national homeland for the Jews: ● leader was Theodor Herzl. 136 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Case study 2 ● Accepted the Basle Plan: ● to find a refuge or national refuge for the Jews in Israel according to a legal settlement. ● Not all Jews in Europe saw themselves as belonging to this ● Zionists claimed the land of Israel for Jewish nationalist movement settlement on the basis of Biblical grounds. back to Zion in Jerusalem. ● Two aspects to Zionist strategy: ● Due to the diaspora, ● encourage Jewish immigration to Israel many Jews had settled ● lobby for support for a Jewish national and become a part of new homeland in Israel among the governments of nationalities; they spoke Europe and the USA. new languages and had ● Many poor and persecuted Jews in Europe, as well assimilated into their new as Jewish refugees, joined the Zionist movement. communities. 2 Establishment of Israel in the Middle East A number of critical events took place in the first half of the 20th century leading to the establishment of Israel as a state in 1948. 2.1 The Balfour Declaration ● In 1917, the British Foreign Secretary, Lord Arthur James Balfour wrote to Lord Rothschild, a leader of the British Jewish community, promising to help Jews establish a Jewish state in Palestine after World War 1. ● This letter became known as the Balfour Declaration of 1917. ● The Zionists used this Declaration to put pressure on later British governments to support a Jewish state in Palestine. ● Britain was mobilising support of Jews in the USA while at the same time trying to win Arab support for its war against Turkey. Palestinian Arabs reactions ● The Balfour Declaration clashed with Palestinian Arabs say that from Britain’s promise to Arabs that Britain that time Britain planned to create would support Arab independence in the a Jewish state in Palestine as a way Middle East. of securing its imperial ambitions in ● The Zionists saw the Balfour Declaration the Middle East. as clear recognition of Jewish claims. 2.2 League of Nations mandate ● After World War I, Britain and France, were given mandates by the League of Nations to rule over most of the Middle East, except for Saudi Arabia, which became an independent Arab kingdom. ● In 1922 Britain granted independence to Egypt, Trans-Jordan and Iraq. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 137

Case study 2 ● Britain’s mandate over Palestine stated that Britain should implement the terms of the Balfour declaration. ● Zionists interpreted the mandate of the League of Nations as a sign that the international community supported the creation of a national home for the Jews in Palestine. 2.3 The UN partition plan Palestinian Arabs reactions ● The Un Partition Plan was based on British proposals and was supported by the The Palestinian Arabs insisted USA, the Soviet Union and other Western that Palestine should remain part powers. More than half of Palestine was of Syria. They rejected the Balfour allocated to the Jewish state. Declaration and the mandate. ● Palestinians and their Arab allies rejected the UN partition plan. Civil war erupted. ● Palestinian units attacked British and Jewish installations in protest. The Haganah attacked and destroyed over 300 Palestinian villages in retaliation. ● Britain had lost control of the situation and began to pull out its 100 000 troops from Palestine in May 1948. ● 14 May 1948: David Ben-Gurion declared the state of Israel on the basis of UN plan. Timeline: Origins and establishment of the state of Israel after World War I Britain encouraged Jewish immigration and Jews bought land from Palestinians. Palestinian Arabs demanded an end to Jewish immigration. Views on attacks ● Jews saw these attacks as a sign of Arab anti-Semitism ● 1921 and 1929: Palestinian ● came to believe that Palestinian Arabs, supported Arabs organised anti-British by the other independent Arab states, were protests = violent clashes determined to drive them out of Palestine by force: between Arab and armed ● an armed ‘self-defence’ militia called the Jewish groups and the Haganah was formed police. ● Jewish leaders promoted the idea that peaceful ● Britain suppressed the co-existence was impossible: that Jews had no choice – they would have to fight to win. Arab protests and three ● Arab nationalists came to believe that armed Palestinian leaders were resistance was the only way to preserve their right to executed. live in an independent Palestine. ● → are today remembered ● Arabs increasingly came to see Britain’s actions as martyrs in the as working together with Jewish militia to create a Palestinian struggle for separate Jewish state in Palestine: their self-determination. ● → based on fact that Britain did not act against the Haganah ● 1930s: Jewish immigration ● = integrated Jewish settlers into the police and increased as Hitler began army. persecuting Jews in Germany. With both groups adopting increasingly polarised positions, there was little possibility for co-existence. 138 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Case study 2 ● 1936: another Palestinian uprising and general strike ● co-ordinated by a Palestinian movement called the Arab Higher Committee (AHC). ● British and Jewish targets were attacked. ● → Jewish groups responded by attacking Arab communities. ● 1937: Britain proposed that Palestine be partitioned into a Jewish state and an Arab state: ● Palestinian Arabs opposed partition. ● Jews supported it in principle – but not with the borders proposed by Britain. ● British tried to put pressure on Jews and Arabs to accept their partition plan. also tried to limit Jewish immigration ● → faced strong protests from Jews. ● Outbreak of WWII = matters on hold in Palestine ● End of WWII → world was a very diﬀerent place: ● = Holocaust and Nazi murder of 6 million Jews: ● → increased determination of the Zionists to force Britain to give independent land in Middle East ● → greatly increased the West to the Zionist cause. ● 1946: Irgun (Jewish armed group) led by Menachem Begin blew up the British military headquarters in Jerusalem = over 100 killed. ● Britain handed the problem UN ● April 1947: UN considers Palestinian question: ● → UN Partition Plan (early 1948) ● = more than half of Palestine given to Jewish state. Palestinians and their Arab allies rejected the UN partition plan. Civil war erupted. ● 14 May 1948: David Ben-Gurion declared the state of Israel on the basis of the UN plan. ● recognised by the Western countries and the Soviet Union ● a military coalition of seven Arab states declared war on Israel ● → 1948 War. 3 The 1948 War The civil war became a war between sovereign (independent) states. ● In an oﬃcial cablegram the League of Arab States (the Arab League) proclaimed their aim: ● = create a ‘United State of Palestine’, in place of the Jewish and Arab, two-state, UN Plan. ● Fighting = mostly on the former territory of the British mandate, Sinai Peninsula and southern Lebanon: © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 139

Case study 2 ● = Arab forces (Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Egypt, Jordan) + Arab volunteers (Saudi Arabia, Libya, Yemen) against Israeli army and resistance from numerous kibbutzim. ● Strength of Israeli army = increased by daily arrival of 1 000s Jewish people from the diaspora. ● 1949: war ended ● → Israel signed separate armistices with Egypt (24 February), Lebanon (23 March), Jordan (3 April) and Syria (20 July). ● Geographical size of Israel increased by about one-third more than was allocated to the Jewish state under the UN partition proposal. United Nations Commissions UN General Assembly ● established to monitor ● passed Resolution 194 in December 1948 ceasefires ● → declared that as part of the peace ● supervise the armistice agreement ‘refugees wishing to agreements return to their homes and live in ● prevent isolated incidents from peace with their neighbours should escalating be permitted to do so.’ ● assist other UN peacekeeping ● BUT: parts of the resolution were operations in the region never implemented ● = Palestinian refugee crisis. 4 How do the Palestinian and Israeli perspectives on the 1948 war differ? The Israeli account The Arab account Palestinian attacks led to self-defence strategies Britain is largely to blame for the Arab marginali- e.g. Haganah sation in Palestine. The war began in November 1947 when Palestin- Britain supported Jewish immigration and the ians attacked British installations and Jewish Haganah; also trained Jewish militants. settlers. There was international support for the state of UN Resolution completely unjust; most of the Israel after the UN Partition Plan failed. land allocated to the Jews. Israel fought for her independence after defeat- Jewish tactics during the war amounted to ethnic ing the Arab coalition. cleansing. Villages were destroyed and Palestinians driven Israel had no choice: Fight to win. out and displaced → no compensation. Some atrocities were committed by extremists Palestinians treated as second-rate citizens; but this was the exception. became refugees. Israeli attacks were retaliatory as Arabs attacked Called An-Nakba: the catastrophe. and killed Jews. 140 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Case study 2 5 Broader Arab nationalism in the region Jewish nationalism Broader Arab nationalism became more cohesive and did not develop: Egypt, Syria, determined to survive any Palestinian Iraq and Jordan all became eﬀorts to take over Israel. Security independent: most Arab became the key focus and militarists states experienced conflict, retaliated swiftly to contain corruption and factionalism. Palestinian threats. Governance was based on authoritarianism. 5.1 Role of Egypt ● Genl Nasser overthrew King 1952 Farouk ● Coup d’ etat ● Policy of non-alignment 1952–1956 ● Modernise Egypt ● sought loan from USSR to build 1956 Aswan Dam ● nationalised the Suez Canal © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 141

Case study 2 5.1.1 Reaction of the West to Suez Canal crisis ● Britain, France and Israel worked together ● → invaded Egypt. ● The USSR demanded the end of occupation ● → threatened cooperation with Egypt. ● The UN put pressure on Israel, Britain and France ● → Nasser emerged the victor. 5.2 Role of Syria and Jordan ● 1946: Syria gained ● 1958–1961: Syria and independence Egypt formed the from France but United Arab Republic ethnic and religious ● but the union factions threatened failed: the peace. ● a military coup ● 1947: Jordan became in 1961 independent of ● → reclaimed Britain. independence. ● 1963: radical Arab ● 1967: Syria lost the Golan nationalists, the Heights to Israel Ba’ath Party was ● but managed to elected to power extend its military ● supported by the influence in the USSR region. ● was anti-Israel ● Jordan played a ● Jordan remained moderate role in the pro-Western. region. Syria was sympathetic to the Palestinian Liberation 0rganisation and allowed them to attack Israel from bases in Syria. 5.3 Pan-Arabism March 1945: Nasser and The Arab Pan-Arabism Egypt, Iraq, Gaddaﬃ saw League aims arose after WWII Transjordan, themselves to promote as opposition Lebanon, Saudi as leaders of Arab unity and to the state of -Arabia and the Pan-Arab safeguard their Israel. Syria formed the movement. independence. Arab League. 142 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Case study 2 5.4 Problems facing the Arab League ● An authoritarian ruling elite focused more on their own selfish aims rather than the needs of the people. ● Arab unity was not the aim of the Arab League per se. ● Political alignments complicated unity, e.g. Saudi-Arabia = generally pro-Western. ● Syria and Iraq became militantly socialist. ● In 1964 the Arab League facilitated the establishment of the Palestinian Liberation Organisation: Yasser Arafat was the first PLO leader ● PLO joined the Arab League as the representatives of the Palestinians. 6 The question of Palestine ● Palestine was handed to the League of Nations to administer as a mandate. ● Britain had to administer Palestine. ● In 1945 the matter was handed over to the UN who proposed a Partition Plan. ● Both groups rejected the partition plan and were intolerant of the other. ● The UN was only able to halt the conflict sporadically and intermittently. ● The Palestinian State was never recognised as fully independent. ● Exclusive nationalisms clashed as they both claimed legitimacy and occupation rights of the land in Palestine. The Palestinians want self- determination and full autonomy. The Israelis claim the right to self-defence. ● Neither nation wants to concede to the claims of the other; both view their religions, language, history and culture as being exclusive. The Palestine Question developed into regional wars that involved many Arab countries too. There were a series of conflicts between the states in the region throughout the 20th century. Many Palestinians were displaced, which increased the demands on the UN Commission for Refugees. In recent times more people have become sympathisers of the Palestinians, recognising the necessity for national self-determination to be granted to the Palestinians. If the Palestine Question is not solved, it could lead to a world conflict. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 143

Case study 2 7 The Arab-Israeli conflict The granting of statehood to Israel in 1948 plunged the Middle East into an on- going Arab–Israeli conflict that has caused much suﬀering and damage, and has the potential to act as a catalyst for a major war in the area that would have international repercussions. 7.1 Refugees The 1948 war created a refugee population of over a million Palestinian people in refugee camps in the countries around Israel. ● Conditions in the refugee camps = terrible, but ● most people believed that they would not be there long, and that they would soon be allowed to return home. ● As the Israeli state entrenched itself, it became clear that this would not happen. ● Some families migrated on to other countries, but thousands remained. ● Host countries did not have the resources to cope with the needs, and poverty and suﬀering grew. ● Militant armed groups developed out of this refugee crisis and began to mount guerrilla attacks on Israeli targets. ● Main one = Al Fatah (founded in 1958 by Yasser Arafat) ● aim = establishment of a Palestinian state. ● Clashes between rival Palestinian groups that threatened security of host nations. ● → Consequently, for example, in 1970, the Jordanian army attacked PLO camps in Jordan killing 30 000 refugees. ● Many fled to Lebanon ● = became the centre of Palestinian resistance. 7.2 The war of 1967 After the Suez crisis, Israel and the Arab nations built up their armed forces with support from the USA and Soviet Union respectively. ● President Nasser spoke about war with Israel to destroy the Zionist state. ● The US 6th Naval Fleet permanently patrolled the Eastern Mediterranean to protect the conservative Arab kingdoms and Israel. ● Tensions = high. ● 1967: Egypt, Jordan, Syria and Iraq signed a military alliance: ● → began to build up their forces along the Israeli borders ● → Al Fatah attacks = increased. ● Israelis convinced this = sign of an invasion plan → decided to attack first. ● 5 June: Israelis launched a surprise air attack on Egypt, Jordan and Syria ● → destroyed the air forces of each country (Egypt lost 286 of its 340 warplanes). ● Without air support, the Arab armies were vulnerable. 144 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Case study 2 7.2.1 Outcome of the war of 1967 In six days the Israeli army had smashed the Arab armed forces and occupied Arab land on the Golan Heights, the West Bank of the Jordan River, the Gaza Strip and the entire Sinai Peninsula. ● This increased the territory that Israel now occupied. ● Israeli leaders felt assured of US support but refused to return occupied land. Arab anger grew, and when Israel refused to return the occupied lands, Arab countries won the support of many newly independent countries. ● The UN passed Resolution 242 ● → demanded that Israel return all occupied territories ● in return, that Arab states should recognise Israel. ● Israel supported this on condition that the Arabs did as well. ● → But the Arab countries and many UN member states insisted on an unconditional withdrawal. ● Palestinian refugee camps in Jordan especially, were flooded with 400 000 more refugees ● conditions = even more desperate. ● The PLO and al-Fatah turned to more desperate terrorist methods ● hijacking aircraft ● attacking ordinary Jewish people ● Israeli athletes at the Olympic Games were assassinated. At the end of the 1967 war an uneasy truce followed. 7.3 Yom Kippur war of 1973 After 1967 war, Egypt and Syria began to acquire more sophisticated weapons and rebuilt their air forces. ● 1973: surprise attack on the Jewish religious holiday (Yom Kippur) ● = Egyptian troops re-occupied the Sinai Peninsula and Syrian troops re-occupied the Golan Heights. 7.3.1 Outcome of Yom Kippur war of 1973 After three weeks of bitter fighting (used high-tech missiles), and with the help of the US army and air force, the Israelis pushed the invading forces back. ● Heavy Israeli losses. ● Arab oil-producing countries threatened to cut oﬀ supplies to countries that supported Israel. ● The USA and the UN hastily organised a cease-fire. ● = Last full-scale war between Israel and its Arab neighbours. The cost of another war on this scale was now too high for both sides. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 145

Case study 2 7.4 Intifada The years 1967–1987 were tense and diﬃcult years. Israel had occupied the last remaining parts of Palestine, including large Arab populations living in the occupied territories of the West Bank, Gaza and the Golan Heights. ● Militant Palestinian armed groups = set up to infiltrate Israel and launch guerrilla attacks inside Israel and missile attacks from outside. ● → Israeli army responded = more and more violent reprisals, including bombing of refugee camps and assassinations of Palestinian leaders. ● Israeli rule in the occupied areas brought some benefits at first, e.g. ● access to jobs ● university built. ● → This policy ended after the Yom Kippur war. ● Israeli rule came to be deeply resented by the Palestinians. ● Israeli government started confiscating Palestinian land and building Jewish settlements as a way of ensuring that they would never have to return the land to Palestinians. ● It diverted water supplies to the new Israeli settlements. ● Palestinian Arabs were herded into their own communities, surrounded by fences and military checkpoints where they were humiliated every time they moved. ● → There was little development in Palestinian areas. ● Unemployment and suﬀering in the Palestinian towns and villages increased. ● December 1987: frustration of the Palestinians in the occupied areas exploded = uprising known as the first intifada: ● Israeli soldier drove his vehicle into a Palestinian car → killed the occupants ● = spark for first intifada. ● Within weeks, popular protests broke out in all the occupied areas. ● → Youth, women and children fought with stones and bottles against the Israeli guns. ● Images of violence embarrassed the Israelis → soldiers were issued with batons. ● → Brutal beatings took place, resulting in thousands suﬀering broken bones and even death. ● Soon the Intifada took on a more planned and revolutionary character: ● → hundreds of ‘popular committees’ were set up = a kind of alternative government in the occupied areas. ● boycotted Israeli taxes and shops ● stopped working in Israeli businesses. ● some made contact with al-Fatah and other nationalist-aligned revolutionary groups for military training and arms. ● new armed groups emerged (e.g. Hamas = armed wing of Muslim Brotherhood in Palestine). ● Armed attacks took place against Israeli soldiers and settlers. ● Israel responded with iron-fisted suppression. 146 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Case study 2 By 1993, the first Intifada had come to an end. Israeli forces had killed an estimated 1 100 Palestinians and Palestinians killed 164 Israelis. Palestinians also killed an estimated 1 000 other Palestinians as alleged collaborators. As a result of the Intifada, Palestinian confidence and pride in their own eﬀorts increased. They were no longer dependent on neighbouring Arab states. ● International condemnation of Israeli brutality put new pressure on Israel to try to reach a peace settlement. ● There was a new opportunity and urgency on both sides to explore dialogue. 8 Peace processes to 2000 In 1979 Israel and Egypt signed a peace treaty known as the Camp David Accords. This treaty contained two important agreements. ● Egypt agreed to recognise the state of Israel, and the Sinai Peninsula was returned to Egypt. ● A political settlement of the Palestinian issue which was based on an autonomous Palestinian State alongside Israel in Palestine. ● The PLO and its allies rejected this agreement outright. ● → But in both Israel and in the PLO, divisions began to emerge between: ● those who wanted to continue with violence ● those who were prepared to make some sacrifices to try to bring about peace. ● The Intifada disrupted the peace process, but after it subsided, leaders on both sides saw the possibility for negotiation. ● → 1988: the PLO recognised the right of Israel to exist. ● → In 1993 after years of delicate negotiation, the PLO and Israeli leaders met in Oslo, Sweden to sign the Oslo Accords. The Oslo Accords ● a framework for the future relations between the two parties ● = agreed on the creation of a Palestinian National Authority (PNA) over parts of the West Bank and Gaza strip. In these areas: ● Israeli army = withdraw ● PNA = responsible for the administration of the areas. ● The accords anticipated that this would be a temporary arrangement lasting about five years, during which the real diﬃcult issues could be resolved. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 147

Case study 2 8.1 After the Oslo Accords ● All subsequent negotiations have failed. ● In Israel, a frightened electorate has elected conservative hardliner nationalist governments to power. ● → Israeli’s have insisted on terms that the Palestinians could not possibly accept. ● Palestinian nationalism has also hardened. ● → As a consequence, since 2000 there has been a second Intifada, followed by intensified conflict, including devastating Israeli air strikes. NO PEACEFUL SOLUTION IN SIGHT. 148 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Topic Unit Case 1X 3XX Topic Unit XX study 1X From ‘Gold Coast’ to Ghana Key question: How did the rise in nationalism in Ghana lead to independence? 1 Early nationalism in the ‘Gold Coast’ 1.1 Impact of colonialism on the Gold Coast By 1901 the Gold Coast was a British colony, with its kingdoms and tribes considered a single unit and under a single authority. There were three early impacts: ● Wealthy and educated class of African lawyers, doctors, teachers and merchants lived along the coast in a series of commercial towns: ● spoke English ● at first welcomed colonial rule, hoping that it would enable them to build a modern economy and society in Gold Coast. ● Gold Coast was not a settler colony ● → its economy was based on a few gold mines and large numbers of traditional cocoa farmers who lived on land that remained under the control of traditional chiefs. ● In order to get labour for the gold mines and to make farmers grow cocoa, the British depended on the co-operation of the powerful traditional chiefs. These three impacts (wealthy elite; large number of rural farmers; establishment of powerful chiefs) had three consequences that helped to lay the foundations for nationalism and eventual independence: ● The colonial government ignored the aspirations of the educated elite in favour of policies that strengthened the traditional chiefs. ● → The elite came to see themselves as members of a new Gold Coast elite as distinct from their traditional identities. ● They wanted rights and privileges of British → drove them towards nationalism. ● Except in the towns, the vast majority of people still thought of themselves as belonging to traditional societies, not any kind of ‘nation’. ● Changes were taking place, and the chiefs and other large cocoa farmers were forcing many poor farmers oﬀ the land and into the mining villages and towns where they became a poor landless urban working class that was open to new African nationalist ideas. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 149

Unit Case XX 3 study1 1.1.1 Early nationalism among the educated elite By the end of the 19th century, educated Africans found colonialism unacceptable. They rejected the concentration of power in the hands of the governor. National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA) ● 1912: JE Casley-Hayford and Dr Akiwande Savage wanted to show solidarity and union between Gambia, the Gold Coast, Sierra Leone and Nigeria, which were all under British colonial rule as a United British West Africa. ● In 1919 they founded the NCBWA: ● had its first conference at Accra in March 1920 with delegates from the four colonies. Delegation to London ● 1920: Africans in Ghana sent a delegation to London to request elected representation. They claimed to represent a cohesive group of African nationalists and intellectuals in British West Africa: ● were inspired by Marcus Garvey’s Back-to-Africa movement ● called for emancipation of Negroes across the world and for them to take charge of their own destiny ● his ideas = a blend of nationalism and religion: ● he advocated unity of black people, pride in black culture and heritage and autonomy. ● The Colonial Oﬃce would not meet with the delegation (British authorities said that it represented only the interests of a small group of urbanised Africans): ● → but its actions resulted in much support among the African elite at home. Elitist bias ● The delegation insisted that they were loyal to the British Crown even though they wanted elected representation on the Legislative Council (the body that governed the Gold Coast) as opposed to a system in which the governor appointed council members. ● These intellectual leaders gave the nationalist movement a definite elitist bias that was to last until the late 1940s. ● It is important to note that the NCBWA did not associate themselves with the plight of the landless and the urban poor in Ghana at this stage. In the 1930s, a new spirit developed in the nationalist movement of West Africa as the working classes began to become more radical and the elite and the intellectuals began shifting their nationalist aspirations towards socialism. 150 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit Case XX 31 study1 Unit XX ● The Great Depression that had started in the USA and spread globally sped up political development in the Gold Coast: ● loss of jobs and poverty made people ready for action ● trade unionism spread among the city workers ● In addition, educated westernised coastal elite soon became more involved in the struggle: ● → dominated the independence movement until the end of WWII. 1.2 Resistance tactics British colonial control = Boycotts of cocoa exporters and ensure trading monopolies: British goods: ● African peasant farmers ● 1937–1938: wealthier farmers and produced cocoa for the traders along the coast started a British: boycott of mainly British-owned ● controlled market at cocoa exporters (who paid very exploitative low prices. low prices) to attempt to break ● British capitalists oversaw their hold on Britain cocoa the production of goods that exports (monopoly). were then sold back to the ● A simultaneous boycott of British Africans at high prices. goods began. This action, which ● Price controls were was quite militant, lasted eight introduced that further months and showed great unity disadvantaged African between the peasants and city farmers. workers. 1.3 Trade unionism Solidarity was also developing among the workers in the Gold Coast: Strikes were a They began feature from 1910 to using socialist the 1930s: Skilled workers rhetoric in ● 1919 Dock workers on the mines, their protest in Lagos and railways and in action , but the railway workers in towns formed intellectual elite Sierra Leone trade unions and and working ● 1924 miners organised strikes. class were still strike on Asante not united in goldfields in Gold resistance. Coast. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 151

Unit Case XX 3 study1 2 World War II: Influence on nationalism African soldiers went to Europe as Many were exposed to the idea of Allied propaganda part of colonial liberating oppressed society from justified campaigns support of the the hold of oppressive regimes. against the totalitarian Allied war eﬀort. regimes. Many of the African elite The Charter’s continued their studies emphasis on the In 1941 African overseas and were inspired right to national nationalists were further by philosophers, self-determination inspired by the writers and intellectuals inspired African principles of the Atlantic calling for human rights. nationalism. Charter. The Universal African nationalism In 1945 the Nazis Declaration of Human was boosted to were defeated in Rights became a become more Europe and the reality in 1948 and forceful to eﬀect Japanese were Britain and France change. forced to surrender were willing to support in the Far East. decolonisation. Immediate events in Gold Coast: Britain planned to slowly In 1946 Dr Danquah and other introduce reforms in Gold Coast elite formed the United Cold with an advisory Legislative Coast Convention to put gentle Assembly. Only 5 Africans were pressure on Britain to grant elected out of 18 members. independence constitutionally. 3 Mass-based movements after World War II The people of Ghana began to take action to achieve independence. ● 1945: workers in the larger industries e.g. dockworkers, postal workers and railway workers in many British colonies, including Gold Coast began militant strike action. ● 1948: a group of 2 000 ex-soldiers marched peacefully on the British Governor’s residence in Accra to protest against low war pensions and the lack of jobs for returning servicemen. ● → The British police commander panicked and shot two marchers. The crowd did not seek violence, and turned around. 152 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit Case XX 31 study1 Unit XX ● Significance: It unleashed the pent up anger and frustration of the urban poor as well as the lower levels of government employees. ● There were violent spontaneous riots in many Gold Coast towns that lasted for days. ● Property belonging to foreign companies was looted. Twenty-nine people were killed and 237 wounded by gunfire. ● The UGCC was wrongly blamed for instigating the riot: ● Nkrumah (a young nationalist who had returned from overseas), Danquah and four others leaders were arrested. Without organisation, the riots were eventually brought under control. 4 Kwame Nkrumah, pan-Africanism and African socialism After graduation in Ghana he became a teacher. Kwame Nkrumah’s He studied in the He was inspired by education and its USA where he was the ideas of du Bois influence on his ideas exposed to Marxist and Garvey on nationalism in the ideology and pan- Gold Coast Africanism He combined his ideas on Christianity, socialism and pan- Africanism. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 153

Unit Case XX 3 study1 4.1 Kwame Nkrumah’s role in the independence struggle of the people of Ghana In 1945 he left the Danquah invited him USA to help organise He was inspired to achieve to become the general the fifth Pan- freedom for his nation as secretary of the United Africanist Congress in quickly as possible. Gold Coast Convention Manchester, Britain. (UGCC) in 1947. In June 1949 Nkrumah A split developed broke away and formed between the He began organising the Convention People’s leaders of the meetings and this Party with the radicals that UGCC and the helped create a mass aimed at immediate self- more radical movement of resistance government. supporters. to colonial rule. The results of the first In January 1950 he Chaos and elections showed the launched the POSITIVE disruption of growth of support for ACTION CAMPAIGN of services occurred the CPP. Nkrumah was mass, non-violent non- and Nkrumah was released and became cooperation with the imprisoned as a Prime Minster in 1952. colonial authorities. trouble maker. 5 Kwame Nkrumah’s Presidency: Successes and criticism Successes: ● In March 1957 the Gold Coast and the British Trust territory Togoland became an independent state called Ghana. ● He built roads, schools and health facilities = improved the standard of living of the people. ● His policy of Africanisation = improved the career opportunities of many Ghanaians. ● In 1960, after a referendum was held, Ghana became a republic under a new constitution with Nkrumah as president. ● He gained wide executive and legislative powers and also began to campaign for African independence throughout the continent and political solidarity among African states. Criticism: ● In 1958 his government legalised detention without trial of those individuals who were considered to be a security risk for the state. ● → showed his authoritarian style of leadership and governance and limited any criticism of his rule. 154 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit Case XX 31 study1 Unit XX ● Within two years he lost touch with the economic reality of good governance and undertook many expensive and unsuccessful schemes. ● → The foreign debt of his country increased and crippled economic development. ● He had to abandon the 1959 Second Development Plan in 1961 due to financial deficits. ● Labour unrest increased and a general strike took place in September 1961. ● He adopted an even more rigorous policy of control in Ghana by censoring the press, television and radio. ● He turned increasingly to communist countries for support. ● After an attempted assassination in 1962, he became more secluded from public life. ● → A cult developed around Nkrumah’s personality: ● despite his shortcomings, he was viewed by many as a saint or messiah. ● His government increased the size of the security forces in Ghana to maintain control. ● → By 1964, Ghana = a one-party state ● Nkrumah = declared as life president of the Ghana nation and party. ● Corruption was rife in Nkrumah’s government, while he focused his attention on educating a new generation of African political activists. ● → By 1966 his country was facing an economic crisis marked by chronic food shortages. The end of Nkrumah’s political career: ● In 1966 the army and police overthrew Nkrumah and his government in a coup d’ etat while he was visiting China. ● Nkrumah sought asylum in Guinea. ● He died of cancer in Bucharest in 1972. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 155

X 12 Topic XX Unit The positive and negative features of nationalism Key question: What are the positive and negative features of nationalism? 1 Debates about nationalism: 1.1 The positive and negative faces of nationalism: Nationalism and freedom struggles vs. nationalism and oppression Case studies have shown how nationalism can be used to: ● unite fractured and fragmented societies ● → African nationalism in South Africa up to 1994 ● → Ghana before independence ● exclude others and discriminate against or victimise them ● → Nazism ● → Afrikaner nationalism ● perpetuate conflict through an unwillingness to compromise on national identity ● → Palestine–Israel. Inclusive nationalism Exclusive nationalism ● Nationalism and freedom struggles ● Nationalism and freedom struggles against oppression resulted in unite a specific group only and democracy, human rights and dominates other groups, e.g. freedom, e.g. ● Afrikaner nationalism and ● SA and Ghana. Zionism. ● Aim was to create a common sense ● It can lead to injustice when one of national community among group controls an area for exclusive people of diverse ethnic, religious habitation, e.g. and racial backgrounds. ● the conflict between the two ● Respected diversity and human rival nationalisms in Israel. rights in the state. ● Human rights are denied to the ● New symbols were adopted for the dominated group. ‘new’ nation ● Exclusive symbols are maintained to ● + previous oppressors were symbolise exclusive identity. invited to be part of new nation. ● Concentration of power at the expense of other groups. 156 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 12 XX 2 Exclusion, xenophobia, war and ethnic cleansing (post- 1990 Eastern Europe) ● Collapse of Communism in the USSR in 1990 led to nationalist struggles throughout Eastern Europe. ● Many new independent states were formed where the citizens could participate in the government. ● But it also had a negative side to it, e.g. ● → in Bosnia in 1992. Serb army > invaded Bosnia with violence and besieged Sarajevo Xenophobia Serb drove the army armed attacks as well and supported as destructive ethnic Serbs in nationalism. Bosnia to start Bosnia 1992 ethnic cleansing campaigns. > > Terrible Wanted to massacres, rape drive Bosnians > and tortures took out of areas Serbs place. wanted to create a larger Serbia Eventually, with the help of international air and ground forces authorised by the United Nations, the Bosnians were able to drive the invaders out of Bosnia. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 157

14 Topic XX Unit Summary and questions Summary of Topic 4 Unit 1: What is nationalism? ● Nationalism is the feeling of belonging to a nation. Nationalism developed over centuries, from the earliest communities (lineages, tribes, etc.) through to the establishment of kingdoms and on to people rising up against these in order to create nations in which they had rights and could own property. ● The turning point in the rise of nationalism and the development of nations took place in Europe with the 1830 and 1848 Revolutions and the unification of Germany and Italy. Case study 1: South Africa ● In the case study on South Africa, you studied the rise of two forms of nationalism: ● African nationalism – which was inclusive in the way that it united people from diﬀerent social and cultural backgrounds to rise up against apartheid ● Afrikaner nationalism – which was exclusive as it tried to unite Afrikaans- speaking whites into a Volk and kept black people subjugated. ● In order to understand the rise of African nationalism you learned about: ● diﬀerent organisations that were founded (e.g. the APO and the SANNC / ANC) ● factors that influenced African nationalism (e.g. the Atlantic Charter) ● events that united especially black people under the banner of African nationalism (e.g. the Defiance Campaign and the Sharpeville massacre). ● When studying the rise of Afrikaner nationalism, you saw that it was driven by: ● a belief that the Afrikaners were God’s chosen people to rule in their promised land – South Africa. ● language, social, cultural and economic movements that helped to foster Afrikaner nationalism, resulting in the National Party election victory in 1948 and the entrenchment of apartheid. ● Finally, you examined how – through nurturing an inclusive type of nationalism – national reconciliation and nation-building were possible after 1990 and the first democratic elections in South Africa in 1994. 158 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

14 Topic XX Unit Summary and questions Case study 2: The Middle East ● In this case study you traced the rise of Arab (Palestinian) and Jewish nationalism. ● You saw how Turkish (Ottoman) oppression of the Arabs, the Holocaust, the Balfour Declaration and the UN Partition Plan all played roles in fostering a divisive nationalism in the Middle East. ● This divisiveness has resulted in on-going Arab-Israeli conflict as both nations want exclusive ‘ownership’ of and political autonomy over the same geographical territory. Case study: 3 From ‘Gold Coast’ to Ghana ● This case study illustrated the uniting power of nationalism that develops around an ideal, such as liberty or equality. ● It also illustrated how such nationalism, if not kept in check by balancing forces (such as a strong opposition party) can become tyrannical and corrupt. ● In order to reach this understanding you traced the rise of nationalism from the end of the 19th and the early 20th centuries when organisations such as the ARPS and NCBWA were founded. ● You looked at the influence of pan-Africanism on the rise of nationalism in ‘Gold Coast’ and how this underpinned the ideology of Nkrumah’s CPP. ● You saw how powerful this type of uniting nationalism can be, which swept Nkrumah into power in 1957, but also saw how quickly it can oppress and corrupt, resulting in the overthrow of the CPP in 1966. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 159

14 Topic XX Unit Summary and questions Questions for Topic 4 CASE STUDY 1: Rival nationalisms in South Africa Question 1: Define the following terms and concepts in the context of the theme on nationalism: a colonialism b nationalism c pan-Africanism d Africanisation e self-determination f Garveyism g Neo-colonialism h Africanists i Uhuru j assimilation Question 2: Explain the diﬀerence between inclusive and exclusive nationalism. State which one is more destructive and why. Question 3: Explain why it was diﬃcult for South Africans to develop inclusive nationalism before 1994. Refer to the impact of each of the following aspects as part of your answer: ● colonialism ● segregation ● discriminatory legislation ● 1910 self-government for whites ● industrialisation ● apartheid (enforced segregation) ● repressive legislation ● actions of the SAP and SADF ● total strategy ● reconciliation. Question 4: Compare Afrikaner and African nationalism in South Africa during the 20th century up to 1994 and indicate which of the two was more excusive. Question 5: Explain why African nationalism in South Africa took nearly forty years to become a mass movement. 160 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

14 Topic XX Unit Summary and questions CASE STUDY 2: Rival nationalisms in the Middle East Question 6: Match the items in Column B with those in Column A: Column A Column B 1 Zionism A Britain gained Palestine as such in 1920 due to the defeat of the Turks 2 Genocide B A self-defence unit in Lebanon 3 fedayeen C Zionists in Palestine 4 diaspora D The Jewish military wing during the mandate period of rule E A nationalist and political movement formed in 1897 to establish a national 5 Irgun homeland for Jews 6 Haganah F An armed radical Israeli group who attacked British installations in the 1930s G Palestinian soldiers who launch attacks on Israel from the refugee 7 mandate settlements and camps 8 Yishuv H The spreading out of Jews all over the world 9 Hamas I An Islamic resistance movement 10 Intifada J The mass extermination of a group K An armed uprising of Palestinians against Israeli control Question 7: Re-arrange the items in Column B to match the dates in Column A. Column A Column B 1 1897 A League sets up mandate in Palestine 2 1917 B Israel declared its independence 3 1920 C UN Partition Plan rejected by Arabs and Jews 4 1931 D Suez Crisis 5 1947 E Irgun established 6 1948 F Yom Kippur War 7 1949 G First Zionist conference in Switzerland 8 1956 H Six-day War 9 1967 I Balfour Declaration 10 1973 J Jerusalem declared an Israeli controlled city K Israel admitted to the UNO as the 59th member state © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 161

14 Topic XX Unit Summary and questions Question 8: Refer to the three maps on the following page and answer the questions below: 8.1 Briefly explain how the War of Independence and the Six-day War led to the territorial changes as reflected on the maps. 8.2 Explain the significance of the following places on the maps: 8.2.1 Jerusalem 8.2.2 West Bank of the Jordan 8.2.3 Gulf of Aqaba 8.2.4 Suez Canal and 8.2.5 Gaza. 8.3 How do the three maps reflect the conflicting nationalisms in the Middle East during this period? 162 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

14 Topic XX Unit Summary and questions Question 9: The following quotes are concerned with nationalism. Read them carefully and then answer the questions that follow: Quote 1: Quote 2: “The diaspora is ending and everyone “The essence of Zionism, or Jewish is coming, this still does not make nationalism, is that Jews everywhere a nation but a mixed multitude and – regardless of where they live, dust of man, without a language and regardless of their religious outlook, education, without roots. To change and regardless of their citizenship – dust of man to a cultured nation is not are members of the Jewish ‘people’ an easy job.” or ‘nation’, to whom all Jews owe a primary loyalty and allegiance.” – David Ben Gurion – Mark Weber, Institute for Historical Review, April 2009 Quote 3: 3A “We will act to realise Arab solidarity and the closing of the ranks that eventually put an end to Israel … We will liquidate her …” – President Nasser of Egypt, April 1964 3B “We swear to God that we shall not rest until we restore Arab nationalism to Palestine and Palestine to the Arab nation. There is no room for imperialism and there is no room for Britain in our country, just as there is no room for Israel within the Arab nation.” – Speech by Nasser at San’a, 17 August 1961 9.1 How do these quotes help to understand why it is so diﬃcult to achieve peace in the Middle East? 9.2 Is there any positive aspect to the nationalist attitudes reflected here? Refer to the clues in the quotes in your answer. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 163

14 Topic XX Unit Summary and questions Question 10: Read through the following passage written by Rabbi Menachem Mendle. Intolerance lies at the core of evil. Not the intolerance that results from any threat or danger. But intolerance of another being who dares to exist. Intolerance without cause. It is so deep within us, because every human being secretly desires the entire universe to himself. Our only way out is to learn compassion without cause. To care for each other simple because that ‘other’ exists. In what ways does Rabbi Mendle propose to end the destructive nationalisms in the Middle East? CASE STUDY 3: Nationalism in the Gold Coast Question 11: The following quotes are by Nkrumah, the first president of an independent Ghana: ● “We prefer self-government with danger than servitude in tranquillity.” ● “We have the right to live as men.” ● “We have the right to govern ourselves.” ● “Seek ye first the political kingdom, and all else will be given unto you.” ● “Economic unity to be eﬀective must be accompanied by political unity. The two are inseparable, each necessary for the future greatness of our continent, and the development of our resources.” 11.1 Using these quotes by Nkrumah, explain his nationalistic vision for Ghana. 11.2 What was Nkrumah’s legacy? Did he keep to these goals? Why, or why not? Question 12: Why do you think so many people in Africa still honour Nkrumah, despite his misrule and destructive nationalism? 164 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

15 Topic XX Unit Apartheid South Africa: 1940s to 1960s Key question for Topic 5: How unique was apartheid between the 1940s and the 1960s? Unit 1 Page 166 • What are racism and segregation? Racism and • How pervasive were racism and segregation in the segregation in the 1920s and 1930s? 1920s and 1930s Unit 2 Page 168 • How did segregation in the 1920s and 1930s lay the Segregation after the foundations for apartheid? formation of the Union • What were segregation policies in South Africa in the 1930s and 1940s? Unit 3 Page 170 • What was apartheid? The National Party • How did apartheid diﬀer from segregation? victory: 1948 • Why did the National Party adopt the policy of apartheid? Unit 4 Page 173 Legalising apartheid • How did the National Party use legislation to create an apartheid state? TOPIC 5 Page 165–194 Apartheid South • Earlier forms of resistance to apartheid Africa: 1940s to 1960s Unit 5 Page 177 • Programme of Action and formation of alliances Overcoming apartheid • What was the Defiance Campaign? • How did the Freedom Charter challenge the apartheid government? • The role of women in mass mobilisation Unit 6 Page 182 The global resistance to • Contexts of global resistance against racism and racism and oppression oppression • Resistance and protests in the West • Resistance and protests in other parts of the world Unit 7 Page 185 The apartheid state’s • What was the apartheid state’s response to anti- response to resistance apartheid resistance in the 1950s? against apartheid Unit 8 Page 187 • How was the Sharpeville massacre linked to African nationalism? The impact of the • What was the impact of the Sharpeville massacre? Sharpeville massacre • Armed conflict as a result of the Sharpeville massacre Unit 9 Page 189 The Rivonia Trial and • What was the Rivonia Trial? its consequences • What were the consequences of the Rivonia Trial? Unit 10 Page 190 • How did apartheid become an international word? Apartheid becomes an • How did the uniqueness of apartheid position South international word Africa globally? © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 165

1X Topic XX Unit Racism and segregation in the 1920s and 1930s Key question: How prevalent were racism and segregation globally in the 1920s and 1930s? 1 What are racism and segregation? Racism Segregation ● = ideology → all humans are ● = the enforced separation of divided into separate and exclusive humans into racial groups in daily biological races. life. ● + belief that race determines ● → actions that forcibly keep personality, intellect, morality diﬀerent races separated in and cultural behaviour activities, e.g. visiting theatres, ● + some races = superior to restaurants, school, etc. others. 2 Racism and segregation in the 1920s and 1930s ● End 19th century: ideas about race and superiority of the ‘white’ race → entrenched. ● European conquests and colonialism = foundation for the polarisation of races in most countries. 2.1 Racism and segregation in North America The nature and development of racism in North America: Klu Klux ● racism was a key element of colonisation and slavery ● people of European origin emphasised diﬀerence between them and descendants of slaves especially in the South → Jim Crow laws. Eugenics Slavery ● popularised through film in the 1920s and 1930s ● racism of Southern states shifted north ● discrimination towards Native Americans, Latin Americans and Klan European immigrants grew. ● racist organisation → increased membership by the 1920s ● racial segregation and lynching → especially in the South. 166 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 1 ● Asian immigrants not allowed into the USA ● racism = entrenched, especially in Southern states ● division grew between political parties after the Democrats invited African Americans to join the party. ● BUT despite political disputes, anti-lynching resolution = passed: April 1937. 2.2 Racism and segregation in Europe ● Eugenics Movement resulted in the notion to sterilise so-called ‘defective’ persons. ● → By 1935 sterilisation laws in Denmark, Switzerland, Germany, Norway, Sweden. 2.3 Racism and segregation in Germany ● During the 19th century racism = ‘Scientific racism’. ● → attempted to provide a racial classification of humanity, e.g. ● → the Nazis in the 1930s classified Jews, Poles, Roma and Sinti Gypsies and other Slavic people = non-Aryans and subhuman (Untermensch). ● BUT, Germans, as Aryans = Ubermenschlich or superhuman. Justified Nazis belief = pure Germans or Aryans had the biological right to displace, eliminate and enslave ‘inferior’ races: ● → Nazi practice to eliminate 6 million Jews in Holocaust. 2.4 Racism and segregation in Australia In 1901, 98% population = white. Australia wanted to be racially ‘pure’ white country that lived by British customs. ● → Eugenic ideas (e.g. fear of miscegenation; maintenance of white racial purity) = commonplace. ● Northern European civilisation (from which the white Australians descended) = viewed as superior to that of Aborigines. ● Children of mixed-descent (‘half-castes’ / ‘crossbreeds’) viewed as a threat to stability and nature of white Australian civilisation. ● → white Australians = a policy of assimilation (‘breeding out blackness’). ● → 1920s and 1930s = scarred with racism towards Aborigines. Half-caste children = taken from their parents and placed in white training institutions called missions. ● = Now known as the Stolen Generation. PLUS, trade unions wanted to protect Australia from labour competition from Chinese and Pacific Islanders. ● → Migration of these groups to ‘white’ Australia = limited according to the Immigration Restriction Act. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 167

Topic Unit 12 Unit XX Segregation after the formation of the Union Key question: How did segregation in South Africa in the 1920s and 1930s lay the foundations for apartheid? 1 How did segregation in South Africa in the 1920s and the 1930s lay the foundations for apartheid? ● Establishment of the Union of SA in 1910 brought four ‘colonies’ together under a centralised self-government. ● = Four diﬀerent ‘native policies’ needed to be replaced with a uniform one. ● Key issues for new policy to solve = ● black land tenure ● blacks in rural and urban areas ● political rights for blacks. ● → A system of segregation was implemented: ● certain areas = reserved for blacks ● others = designated for whites. ● First Union parliament = President Louis Botha (and Jan Smuts) → introduced Land Act (1913) to address the problem of black land tenure in the rural areas. ● = cornerstone of apartheid that was introduced in 1948 until 1990. ● 1923: Native Urban Areas Act curbed the migration of black people into urban areas ● urban areas in SA = viewed as ‘white’ ● blacks in urban areas = viewed as temporary residents who lived in separate locations under control of municipalities. Black men had to carry permits (passes) or face arrest → sent back to the rural areas. Only a few coloured people and certain qualifying black people were on the voters roll = black people were denied the right to vote and to participate in politics. When JBM Hertzog became Prime Minister in 1924, the moderate ‘native’ policies of Botha were replaced and segregation was entrenched even further: ● = New legislation to protect the privileged position of white labour: ● 1924: Industrial Conciliation Act legalised white trade unions. ● 1925: Wages Act enabled minister of labour to force employers to give preference to hiring white workers. ● 1926: Mines and Works Amendment Act reinforced colour bar in mining industry. ● Hertzog’s government also provided greater opportunities to whites by: ● instituting higher protective tariﬀs to encourage local manufacturing ● opening up new trade relations overseas and ● the establishment of the state-owned ISCOR and the SA Railways and Harbours. 168 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 2 XX 2 What were the segregation policies in SA in the 1930s and 1940s? Hertzog’s takeover in 1924 = a turning point. He believed ● in ‘SA First’ ● that SA was made up of white people only, especially Afrikaners. ● His segregation policies = aimed at protecting whites economically and politically. Eﬀects of the Great Depression after 1929 → increased migration of people into the urban areas seeking employment = viewed as a threat. ● → 1932: Hertzog set up Native Economic Commission → recommended that blacks should live separately in reserves where they could be assisted to be more productive through modern farming methods. ● = Hertzog’s government passed laws → direct influence on apartheid legislation later: ● Representation of Natives Act (No. 12 of 1936) → blacks and whites should not be politically integrated. ● Native Trust and Land Act (No. 27 of 1936) extended territorial segregation in the Natives Land Act (No. 27 of 1913) ● → 13% of the country was allocated to black people ● → entrenched unequal segregation of SA according to race ● PLUS black people had to stay in rural areas ● their movement to urban areas was controlled to protect whites from labour competition. ● Native Laws Amendment Act of 1937 entrenched segregation by applying the pass laws more strictly. ● Factories, Machinery and Building Works Act of 1941 = factory owners to allocate racially segregated work, recreation and eating areas for workers. ● Electoral Laws Amendment Act of 1940 = compulsory registration of white voters only. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 169

Topic Unit 13 Unit XX The National Party victory in 1948 Key question: What were the implications of the 1948 victory of the National Party? 1 What was apartheid? Although Smuts first used the word apartheid, Afrikaner thinkers who led the Afrikaner nationalist revival in the 1930s used the term more frequently. ● The main message in the 1930s = diﬀerent races could not live together because this would cause conflict: ● → so, segregation and separate development was the only way forward. When the Herenigde National Party under DF Malan defeated the United Party under Smuts in 1948, SA was already a very racially divided country. ● The policy of apartheid (which literally means ‘apartness’) institutionalised and extended segregation already in place to the detriment of the black majority. ● It was entrenched by many laws that covered all areas of life: ● restricted all power to whites ● segregated education ● protected whites in the labour market ● through strictly applied influx control, restricted migration of blacks into urban areas. ● set aside reserves African residency (these were based on the reserves that existed during colonial times). ● → White supremacy was secured by apartheid. 2 How did apartheid differ from segregation? 2.1 Differences between segregation and apartheid segregation ● colonial policy ● Europeans felt superior to ‘natives’ or indigenous people. ● the racist ideal of Europeans to subjugate the indigenous people and to live separately from them. 170 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 13 XX ● it was unique to South Africa. apartheid ● it was legally and politically enforced by the National Party in 1948. ● policies both rigidly and ruthlessly enforced through many laws. ● it disenfranchised and oppressed the black majority to keep a white minority government in power. 2.2 Similarities between segregation and apartheid ● Both practised racism. ● Both continued economic exploitation of black people that began in colonial times. ● Both were based on a general fear the whites had of violent, large-scale and nationwide uprisings of the black majority in SA. 3 Why did the National Party adopt the policy of apartheid? ● The history of segregation in SA entrenched racist attitudes. ● The impact of World War II (WWII) on Africans increased the call for political power and independence. FEAR OF ● This led to increased resistance A BLACK against segregation and calls for UPRISING WHY change. AND LOSS ● The global post-war trend OF WHITE was to move away from racial CONTROL discrimination. ● Many Afrikaners rejected the findings of the Fagan Report that recommended the acceptance of races living side by side. 3.1 What commissions led to the National Party adoption of the policy of apartheid? United and National Party set up commissions to suggest strategies to deal with SA’s racial problems. ● Fagan Commission (set up by the UP in 1946/7): ● → recommended the acceptance of whites and other races existing side by side as the only feasible option. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 171

Unit 13 XX ● Sauer Commission (set up by the HNP in 1947 in response to Fagan Commission): ● → recommended that entrenched and formalised segregation of the races was the only way to ensure the future of each race. All races should receive equal opportunities to develop separately to gain self-determination. It strongly recommended apartheid as a policy. 3.2 How did the HNP win the 1948 elections? The number of seats won by diﬀerent parties in the 1943 and 1948 elections: Party 1943 elections (No of seats) 1948 elections* (No of seats) Herenigde National Party (HNP) 43 70 Afrikaner party (AP) 0 9 United Party (UP) 89 65 Labour Party (LP) 9 6 Dominion Party (DP) 7 N/A Independents 2 3 *The NP formed the new government under the leadership of DF Malan while the United Party became the Oﬃcial Opposition. This is how the NP came to power: Many UP under Smuts The wartime Afrikaners in Malan’s HNP began to lose coalition between Natal left the UP and Havenga’s appeal in the UP, DP and LP for the HNP due AP formed an late 1940s. began to crumble. to the Indian alliance Policy of the UP. NP realised Very few NP exploited white fears for a coloureds, In 1948 the HNP fears of white majority takeover blacks and merged with the electorate of by blacks and Asians were AP and reverted black calls for promoted their allowed to vote to using National independence. campaign around (only those who Party (NP) apartheid. qualified). Malan’s NP Many voters NP promise of NP promised scared voters blamed UP for influx control farmers and against the ‘swart the economic looked like business cheap gevaar’ (black problems after a feasible labour. peril). the war. option. UP underestimated NP and showed complacency. NP election campaign was more focussed. The alliance between HNP and AP = majority. Electoral boundaries gave NP a majority of seats despite the party not getting the majority of votes in the election. 172 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

X 14 Topic XX Unit Legalising apartheid Key question: What was the impact of legalising apartheid? 1 Major apartheid legislation Segregation policies were turned into legalised apartheid after 1948. Every community = aﬀected in social, residential, cultural (including education), economic and political spheres. Implications and Law Date Contents significance Social apartheid: These laws affected the social cohesion within SA due to enforced segregation. Communities were destroyed and freedom of movement and association were curtailed. The government attempted to ‘protect’ white communities from other races by means of influx control. Blacks lived in reserves and homelands in the rural areas and locations outside towns and cities. Many informal settlements arose due to the rapid influx of migrant workers looking for employment. These workers were not allowed to bring their families with them and many migrant workers were housed in hostels and compounds. The passing of many laws led to social engineering that alienated South Africans from each other. Prohibition of Mixed 1949 Marriages between whites and Multiracial marriages had to Marriages Act other races prohibited. be arranged outside SA. Police harassed mixed couples. Immorality Amendment 1950 Sexual intercourse between This law was difficult to Act whites and members of another enforce but led to dissension, races was outlawed. bitterness and unhappiness. The State intervened in personal relationships, neighbours spied on each other and reported offenders and it led to police harassment. Population Registration 1950 South Africans would be Coloureds and blacks were Act classified and categorised divided further into ethnic according to their particular groups. Coloureds were population group in a central divided into 7 categories and population register. Blacks into 12 subgroups. Many families suffered heartache and confusion as siblings were categorised in different racial groups with different privileges and rights, e.g. Sandra Laing. Reservation of 1953 All public places had to have Separate facilities were not Separate Amenities Act separate facilities for whites equal. Discrimination led to and non-whites (e.g. hospitals, feelings of inferiority and restaurants, sports facilities freedom of movement became and government offices). difficult. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 173

Unit 4 Implications and Law Date Contents significance Residential apartheid: The government used legislation to ensure that racial groups lived in segregated communities. Certain residential areas were reserved for certain groups. Blacks, coloured and Indians were forcibly removed to ‘new’ townships or areas designated for their racial group. In some areas business owners and homeowners lost their property and livelihood with little or no compensation. Separate townships were constructed to house urbanising blacks, e.g. South Western Townships (SOWETO) near Johannesburg. Group Areas Act 1950 Specific residential areas were Only races, which had been designated for different races. allocated to an area, were allowed to live in or own property in the area. The best areas were designated for whites. Other races were forced to move from areas into townships or reserves (homelands) for their race. Native Resettlement 1954 It supplemented the Group Many blacks lost their right Act Areas Act by enforcing to own land or businesses; residential apartheid. ‘Black they were not consulted or spots’ or people in overcrowded compensated. The properties townships were forced to in the new townships could resettle. only be rented and not owned. Native (Urban Areas) 1955 It aimed to deal with blacks This often split families and Amendment Act in urban areas; only 5 black led to uncertainty and clashes people could live in a flat in the with the authorities. cities. Cultural and educational apartheid: According to the racial policies of the NP, the cultural identity of each group had to be kept separate to retain the unique identity of each. Cultural festivals reflected unique cultural practices and customs of groups and races rather than a multi-cultural focus. Education was segregated according to race and proportionately less was spent on black pupils than on the other races. This led to feelings of inferiority due to discriminatory policies and practices. Bantu Education Act 1953 All black education came Education was segregated under the Department of Bantu according to race and Education. spending on white children was much higher than the other races. In ‘black education’, the focus was on subjects that would prepare black pupils for manual labour. Education was very inferior for black pupils. Extension of University 1959 It created separate institutions Not only were white and Education Act of higher learning for separate black students forcibly races. segregated by this law, but even within groups there was differentiation (i.e. each black ‘nation’ – Xhosa, Zulu, etc. – had its own university). This was a serious infringement of academic freedom. 174 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 4 Implications and Law Date Contents significance Political apartheid: After the Union of SA was established in 1910, very few people of colour had any say in political affairs. Even the few coloured people who had qualified to vote could not vote. Elected white Members of Parliament would represent them. After 1948, the NP moved to remove these voters from the common voters’ roll. Under Verwoerd’s government apartheid was referred to as separate development and the NP chose to cushion the concept with the idea of development and progress of each group in separate areas with segregated facilities. Opponents used slogans such as ‘separate but not equal’ to resist these policies. Non-whites only received the franchise in 1994 when the democratic constitution was accepted. Asiatic Land 1948 It replaced the Asiatic Land Asians were treated as second Amendment Act Tenure and Representation Act rate SA ‘citizens’ who were of 1946. Indians would not be here only temporarily. This regarded as true citizens of SA changed after 1961 under no matter how long they had Verwoerd’s government resided in the country. when Indians were viewed as a permanent part of the SA population. A SA Indian Council was established in 1964 to improve relations between the Indians and the SA government. Appellate Division 1955 It increased the number of This shows a breach of the Quorum Act appellate judges from 5 to 11. principle of separation of powers. The government hoped that the newly appointed judges would be sympathetic to their policies. Senate Act 1955 It changed the composition of It ensured that the NP would the Senate. get a two-thirds majority decision when implementing policies. Separate 1956 Cape Coloureds who were on When the official opposition Representation of the common voters’ roll were and certain higher courts Voters Act removed and placed on a opposed the introduction of separate roll. It made provision this law, Premier JG Strijdom for a Coloured Affairs Council had legislation passed that to discuss matters relating to enlarged both the Appellate the Cape Coloureds with the SA Division of the Supreme Court government. as well as the Senate (see below) to get the law passed. SA Amendment Act 1956 Due to the SA government’s This law was supported with a manipulation of the size of clear two-thirds majority. the Senate and the Appellate Division, coloureds were removed and placed on a separate voters’ roll. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 175

Unit 4 Implications and Law Date Contents significance Economic apartheid: The aim of the apartheid government was to segregate the work place and to ensure that the interests of white-owned capitalistic business were served. Strike activity and the growth of trade unions were controlled. Non-whites were trained for certain types of labour, while job reservation ensured that white workers were given preferential treatment. The spread of communism was viewed as a threat to the future of capitalism in SA and therefore was outlawed. Suppression of 1950 The Communist Party was Communists could not be Communism Act banned and the Governor- members of other political General could ban any other organisations, e.g. the ANC or organisation that promoted the trade unions. Communists who aims of communism. were members of the Senate, House of Assembly and Provincial Councils lost their seats. Communist propaganda was banned. Native (Bantu) Labour 1953 No black trade unions could This made it difficult for black Act (Settlement of exist. Blacks could not join workers to air grievances, Disputes Act) existing trade unions and declare disputes with striking by black workers was employers or to have their forbidden. grievances addressed. Industrial Conciliations 1956 ‘Mixed’ racial membership of It led to the founding of the Act trade unions was outlawed. SA Council of Trade Unions, Such trade unions were which rejected the notion that desegregated and separate industrial relations could be unions for whites and blacks separated from politics. established. Certain types of labour were reserved for white workers only. 176 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

X 15 Topic XX Unit Overcoming apartheid Key question: What was the nature of internal resistance to apartheid before 1960? 1 Early forms of resistance to segregation and racial discrimination MK Gandhi came to SA in 1893 as a Promoted satyagraha or devotion to the truth, lawyer to fight for the rights of Indians a policy of non-violent (passive) resistance. and blacks. Although segregation continued Gandhi laid the foundation for non- Encouraged his supporters to defy unjust violent resistance and started the Natal legislation by refusing to register, burn Indian Congress to fight for rights for registration cards and protest marches. Indians in Natal. 1.1 Internal resistance to discrimination and segregation, 1910 to 1939 SANNC started non-violent protests Tactics were more persuasive rather then against the implementation of the Land militant. Act in 1913. Protest marches in 1919 and SANNC In 1914 and 1919 deputations were sent to supported 1920 strike but no real discuss their frustrations with the British change during the 1920s and 1939s. government, but not successful © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 177

Unit 5 1.2 An overview of resistance during the early 1940s ● call for democratic reform by the Workers’ Party of SA after 1935 Revival ● emphasised non-collaboration and boycotts until demands were met. ● resistance grew against racist policies and attitudes AAC ● convened the All African Convention to discuss the way forward. ● 1937: Natives’ Representative Council (NRC) formed ● 1940: Dr Xuma became the new president of the ANC Other ● 1943: Non-European Unity Movement = launched; catalysts publication of Atlantic Charter → called for self- determination of peoples to be recognised. Convened the All African Convention to discuss the way forward. ● 1944: ANCYL established ANC ● Dr Xuma called for mass support until rights were recognised for blacks. ● 1942: Marabastad riots = black municipal workers rioted about poor wage increases Examples of ● 1943 and 1944: Alexandra bus boycotts to reject increased resistance fees; anti-pass campaigns ● 1946: mineworkers’ strike = massive stay-aways from work. 178 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 5 2 The Programme of Action and the formation of alliances “The African Claims of SA” ● Full citizenship rights 1943: AB Xuma ● Unqualified franchise for (ANC president) black men and women adopted DEMANDS ● Abolition of the NRC expectations in ● Unrestricted land Atlantic Charter of ownership for blacks 1941. ● Abolition of the pass laws ● Free compulsory education ● Equal pay for equal work ● Adequate housing ● Absolute equality under the law. 2.1 Changes in the resistance movement by the early 1950s ANC changed A mass liberation movement = from a moderate + ANC, AAC, IC, that became more impatient organisation run by APO and CP with the slow pace of reform middle class liberals formed alliances. and restrictive apartheid → a more militant legislation. one. Under Dr JS Moroka ANC launched a Programme of Action in 1949 → encouraged black workers to embark on mass action, civil disobedience campaign, strikes, stayaways, boycotts and other forms of non-violent resistance. March 1950: ANC held a Freedom of Speech Convention → announced that 1 May 1950 = Freedom Day → called for a national stayaway from work. 1 May: strikers clashed with police = 18 people killed. In reaction ANC, SAIC, Communist Party and APO declared 26 June a National Day of Mourning → called for a mass stayaway from work. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 179

Unit 5 3 The Congress Alliance and Defiance Campaign Programme of Anti- apartheid 1952: younger members of the Action led to coalition of the early ANC, led by Sisulu, Tambo and the Defiance 1950s planned the Mandela and other alliance Campaign. Defiance Campaign. members launched the Campaign. Mandela, as the Despite Malan’s elected volunteer- warning that ANC Was the first major non-violent in-chief of the resistance campaign by black should not incite campaign, blacks to disobey communities and a small group of travelled the white left-wing activists. laws, planning went country organising ahead. resistance. After banning of Joint Planning the Communist 26 June 1952: protestors defied Council appointed Party and its pass laws, ignored curfews, and recommended newspaper, ANC, entered waiting rooms and that the six main Indian Congress and railway coaches reserved for unjust laws of Franchise Action whites, entered locations apartheid should be Council met in without permits and sat on abolished before Feb July 1951 to plan a benches reserved for whites 1952 or face mass campaign against only. action. the unjust laws. Many leaders Violence broke out were tried and in Port Elizabeth, Resistors sang liberation given suspended Kimberley and East songs, oﬀered no resistance and sentences. London as protestors pleaded not guilty. Refused to Campaign ended clashed with police. pay fines and preferred to go to in Jan 1953. Some people criticised prison. the leaders. 3.1 What were the consequences of the Defiance Campaign? ● The banning of the Communist Party. Negative results ● Resisters had to operate underground. ● Apartheid state’s crackdown on those against apartheid, e.g. ● → became more repressive ● → harassed resisters ● → surveillance of resisters ● Violence increased in certain areas. 180 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

Unit 5 ● ANC membership increased markedly. Positive results ● Solidarity arose between resisters despite race. ● A number of leftist organisations arose to fight discrimination. Many of these had communist members. ● In July 1953 the Liberal Party was established. ● The Coloured People’s Congress was formed to support the protestors. ● The Congress of Democrats was formed by whites who wanted universal suﬀrage to be extended to all South Africans. 4 How did the Freedom Charter challenge the apartheid government? ● Despite government restrictions against organising publicly, ANC and SAIC leaders went ahead and planned resistance. ● Prof ZK Matthews, the Cape leader of the ANC, proposed a Freedom Charter. ● → Meetings were held to plan the launch and a National Action Council for the Congress of the People was founded. This Council called for a Congress of the People to be held on 26 and 27 June 1955 at Kliptown near Soweto. ● → Pieter Beyleveld, a white member of the Congress of Democrats, acted as chairman of the meeting of 2 844 delegates from all over the country. A Freedom Charter based on the principles of a socialist democracy with equal rights for all races was adopted. It also called for democracy and human rights, land reform, labour rights and nationalisation. ● The Freedom Charter was viewed as a blueprint for a democratic SA and opposed the constitution of the apartheid State. ● → Some Africanist members of the ANC opposed the document and broke away to form the PAC in 1959. 5 The role of women in mass mobilisation FEDSAW was launched in Johannesburg in 1954 to establish a broad-based women’s organisation. A Women’s Charter was written at this conference. ● Openly supported the campaigns of the Congress Alliance and its demands were included in the Freedom Charter. ● → It called for full equality of opportunity for women and the enfranchisement of all men and women in SA. ● It organised campaigns against the extension of the pass laws to women. ● First national protest = 27 October 1955. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 181

Unit 5 ● 9 August 1956: 20 000 SA women marched to Union Buildings = deliver petitions to Strijdom, the Premier. ● → Women gathered on the lawns of the Union Buildings as a sign of solidarity as Strijdom did not meet with them. ● FEDSAW as an organisation gained support due to this event and women became recognised within the ranks of the resistance movement. 182 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

X 16 4 Topic XX Unit Global resistance to racism and oppression Key question: In what ways was the resistance against apartheid part of a wider global resistance against racism, the erosion of human rights and civil liberties? 1 Contexts of global resistance SA: civil society Latin American resistance to State – countries: many protest imposed oppression movements planned led to reprisals and in secret at the risk of persecution, even death persecution and death Contexts of global resistance against racism, the erosion of human rights and civil liberties Western Europe and Eastern Europe: attempts the USA: civil society to protest against groups protested against State oppression were injustice without much curtailed and uprisings reprisal from the State or were crushed persecution 1.2 Resistance and protests in the West Some examples: ● The Civil Rights Movement: Protested against discrimination against blacks in the USA in the 1960s: segregated facilities, unequal educational and economic opportunities and brutality against blacks was often condoned by the police. ● → Activists such as Martin Luther King and Rosa Parks supported bus boycotts and civil disobedience to draw attention to the racism and inequality. Bus segregation was declared unconstitutional and illegal in 1956. ● → August 1963 250 000 people joined a march to the Lincoln Memorial in Washington to show support for the new Civil Rights Bill that would advance equal rights for all in the USA. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 183

Unit 16 XX ● Anti-war movement: By 1967 television and the mass media exposed the warfare in Vietnam. Public opinion turned against the continued presence of US troops in Vietnam. ● → Resistance to US participation in wars across the globe spread among students and other pacifists. ● Women’s movement: By the 1960s a second wave of women’s protests in the USA called for equal rights for women. ● → The feminist movement challenged many entrenched values and attitudes in US society against women. ● French student protests: Erupted in 1968 calling for more democratic management of schools and universities. Marches, strikes and demonstrations followed in France and other European cities. ● Mexico City: In 1968 students and workers went on a march to call for democratic reforms and the release of political prisoners. The police and military opened fire on protestors, killing hundreds. ● Tokyo, Japan: In 1968 more than 100 demonstration marches took place at universities, calling for reforms. 184 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

X 17 4 Topic XX Unit The apartheid state’s response to resistance against apartheid Key question: How did the apartheid state respond to resistance against apartheid in the 1950s? 1 The apartheid state’s response to resistance against apartheid in the 1950s The response of the apartheid state to resistance against apartheid in the 1950s is summarised in the table below. Event / Resistance Reaction to resistance Consequences / significance Defiance Campaign • Mass arrests and the leaders • The accused received nine month Trial, June 1952 Mandela, Sisulu and 18 others prison sentences suspended for were tried under the Suppression two years. of Communism Act for leading the • Mandela was confined to Jhb Campaign. for six months by an additional banning order. • Despite mass arrests the NP government had to temporarily relax its apartheid legislation. On-going protests Two further repressive laws passed • It became increasingly difficult for and defiance by the Minister of Justice, CR Swart: resisters to hold public meetings • Public Safety Act (1953) enabled and many went underground. the State to call a state of • The State gained wide powers emergency when the public safety of arrest and aimed to break up was threatened. resistance. • Criminal Law Amendment Act (1953) prescribed harsh penalties for those who used protests to contravene laws. Black resistance in Bantu Authorities Act, 1951 • This increased government control rural areas in the rural areas. • The government replaced troublesome chiefs with cooperative ones in the rural areas. Black resistance Promotion of Bantu Self-Government • Homeland areas were established against tribal Act, 1959 to break up solidarity among divisions blacks by promoting ethnic divisions homeland loyalty rather than African nationalism that called for independence • Tribal identities were maintained in the rural areas but many urbanised blacks resented the system of traditional leadership. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 185

Unit 12 XX 7 Event / Resistance Reaction to resistance Consequences / significance Congress of the • 1956 Treason Trial • After a long trial of five years, People and the • Using anti-communist Justice Rumpff acquitted Freedom Charter legislation, the police arrested the accused due to a lack of leaders of the ANC and the evidence. The fact that the Congress of the People. Many leaders were out of circulation documents were confiscated as weakened the resistance proof of ‘high treason’. Homes movement. It placed a financial were searched and many arrests burden on the Congress Alliance. made, including Mandela, Slovo, It had a negative psychological Sisulu, Kathrada, Ngoyi and impact on leaders of the Joseph. resistance. The trial caused anxiety among white voters who gave the NP an increased majority in the 1958 elections. The SA government became more repressive, e.g. Cato Manor (1959) and Sharpeville (1960). 186 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

X 1 8 4 Topic XX Unit Impact of the Sharpeville massacre Key question: What was the impact of the Sharpeville massacre? 1 The link between nationalism and the Sharpeville massacre Not everyone in the ANC agreed with the ANC’s policy of non-racialism. In November 1958 a group of disenchanted ANC members (Africanists) broke away from the ANC. ● → Founded the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) in April 1959: ● Robert Sobukwe = first leader. He said: ● aim of the PAC = ‘the government of the Africans, by the Africans for the Africans’ and that their ideology should be black nationalism. ● PAC grew rapidly within a year of its formation. ANC and the PAC planned campaigns of resistance against the pass laws. ● PAC march = planned in Sharpeville on 21 March 1960. ● About 10 000 black people congregated around the Sharpeville police station. ● Later the police started firing, killing 69 people. 2 Impact of the Sharpeville massacre Police action was condemned both in SA and abroad. Blacks were outraged and protest action started around the country. ● December 1960: ● black leaders held All Africa Conference (AAC) ● = request the government to arrange a national convention to draft a new constitution. ● Government refused and arrested AAC leaders. ● Black leaders decided to start armed resistance. ● → The government declared a state of emergency in 122 of the country’s 265 districts. ● Thousands detained, including many prominent resisters and activists. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 187

Unit 12 XX 8 The table below summarises the main impacts of the Sharpeville massacre. Event Reaction to resistance Consequences/ significance The SA Government The ANC and PAC were banned. • The resistance campaign was enforced the weakened. By May 1960 most of Unlawful the detained leaders had been Organisations Act released. The state of emergency (1960) had helped to restore law and order. • Robert Sobukwe (PAC leader) was convicted for inciting uprisings and sentenced to three years imprisonment. Black resistance leaders were unable to coordinate a national campaign of resistance. A national To decide whether SA should • On 31 May 1961, SA became a referendum was held become a republic. republic. Forced to leave the among white voters British Commonwealth due to in Oct 1960. racial policies. International On 1 April 1960 the UN adopted • SA became increasingly isolated condemnation of SA Resolution 134: condemned internationally. at the UN Sharpeville massacre and called on the SA government to change its policies. Armed conflict The ANC and PAC leadership formed • MK was under the command of between African military wings: Mandela and focused on acts of and Afrikaner • Umkhonto we Sizwe (ANC) sabotage; it was not in favour of nationalists • Poqo (PAC). terrorism or unnecessary loss of increased after the life. SA government • Poqo only allowed black refused to hold a membership and was not national convention opposed to acts of terrorism in or address black which whites would be killed. grievances. • MK damaged buildings in Durban, Port Elizabeth and Johannesburg in December 1961. Mandela arranged training for MK cadres overseas and recruited assistance from overseas states against apartheid. He was arrested in Natal in August 1962 and was convicted to five years imprisonment. Between 1962 and 1963 Poqo engaged in many acts of sabotage. Sobukwe was arrested: led to leadership problems for the PAC. 188 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

X 19 4 Topic XX Unit The Rivonia Trial and its consequences Key question: What were the consequences of the Rivonia Trial? 1 The Rivonia Trial and its consequences The Rivonia Trial and its consequences are summarised in the table below. What were the consequences of the Rivonia What was the Rivonia Trial? Trial? • Began on 26 November 1963 and • 8 of the accused were found guilty and two were ended on 12 June 1964. discharged. • It followed the arrest of ANC leaders at • 8 were sentenced to life imprisonment. the MK headquarters at Liliesleaf Farm • Oliver Tambo and other leaders fled SA into exile. in Rivonia, north of Jhb on 11 July 1963. • Other ANC members left to get military training • 10 ANC leaders were tried for 221 acts overseas. of sabotage. • The ANC structures suffered disorganisation. • All 10 pleaded not guilty. • The ANC had to build new underground structures • Documents were discovered that internally to promote mass struggle and an armed implicated Mandela and others about struggle. Operation Mayibuye, which the State • A campaign was launched to win overseas support believed to be aimed at overthrowing against the NP government. the SA government. • The state of emergency was ended and SA experienced an economic boom. This led support for the NP to grow. • This economic growth made the NP government move forward with its ideas of separate development within the homelands system. Blacks would be relocated to these homelands. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 189

Topic Unit 10 1 Unit XX Apartheid becomes an international word Key question: How did the uniqueness of apartheid position South Africa globally? 1 How did apartheid become an international word? Segregationist policies were practised in many Western countries and colonies. Before 1948, SA’s policy of segregation was moving with the stereotypes practised worldwide. ● 1948: SA’s racial policies took a drastic turn when the NP won the election and implemented apartheid. ● → Apartheid = legally enforced racism and separation of races: blacks, whites, coloureds and Indians. ● Segregation was replaced with a system of laws to carry out apartheid. ● = ironical as most of the world was supporting the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights (UNDHR) and the Charter of the UN that focused on human rights. ● After Sharpeville, most countries branded SA as the ‘polecat of the world’ due to its racial policies. Many countries woke up to the repressive policies of the SA government. ● SA became more and more isolated internationally. ● → Trade embargoes, cultural and sports boycotts as well as sanctions were imposed by the UN and the Anti-apartheid Movement to force SA to change its policies. 190 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

15 Topic XX Unit Summary and questions Summary of Topic 5 Unit 1: Racism and segregation in the 1920s and 1930s ● Racism and segregation, based on notions of white racial superiority and the ‘scientific’ work of the Eugenic Movement, were widespread in the 1920s and 1930s. ● Rife segregation against blacks in the USA and South Africa and against Aborigines in Australia. There was severe ethnic discrimination against Jews in Germany. Unit 2: Segregation after the formation of the Union ● The 1913 Natives Land Act formed the basis for apartheid ● Influx laws, exclusion of blacks from political mainstream, Industrial Conciliation Act of 1924 and the Wage Act of 1925 entrenched segregation in South Arica. ● Numerous pieces of legislation enacted (e.g. Representation of Natives Act) further entrenched segregation, while the Natives Land Act (No. 27 of 1913) confirmed the policy that the country should always be segregated unequally by race. Unit 3: The National Party victory: 1948 ● South Africa was already racially segregated when the National party came into power in 1948. ● However, the National Party used a wide range of laws to legalise and institutionalise segregation, which now became known as apartheid. ● The National Party adopted apartheid because it wanted to entrench white privilege and avoid black domination. ● There were numerous reasons for the victory of the National Party in 1948, such as the economic problems in South Africa, the promise of continued cheap (black) labour and gerrymandering. Unit 4: Legalising apartheid ● The National Party government enacted a range of laws to legalise apartheid. Some of these laws were the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act (No. 55 of 1949); the Immorality Amendment Act (No. 21 of 1950); the Population Registration Act (No. 30 of 1950); the Reservation of Separate Amenities Act (No 49 of 1953); the Group Areas Act (No. 41 of 1950); and the Bantu Education Act (no. 47 of 1953). ● These laws aﬀected all South African, but especially black people, politically, socially, economically, educationally, and culturally. Unit 5: Overcoming apartheid ● During the 1940s black resistance to apartheid gained fresh momentum due to the establishment of organisations, such as the Workers’ Party of South Africa, the Non- European Unity Movement and the ANC Youth League. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 191

2 15 Topic XX Unit Summary and questions ● This resulted in alliances, mass mobilization, a Programme of Action and the Congress Alliance, leading to the Defiance Campaign in 1952 and the Congress of the People (the Freedom Charter) in 1955. Unit 6: The global resistance to racism and oppression ● Throughout the 1960s there was an international upsurge in demands for human rights that placed the struggle in South Africa in a wider context of resistance against oppression. ● Examples of these include the civil rights movement in the USA, the Women’s Movement and student demonstrations throughout the world. Unit 7: The apartheid state’s response to resistance against apartheid ● The South African government responded to resistance against apartheid by using mass arrests, the enactment of legislation, court trials and brutal force. ● Examples of the above include the arrest of 8 000 people after the Defiance Campaign and the 1956 Treason Trial. Unit 8: The impact of the Sharpeville massacre ● Radical members of the ANC broke away in 1958 and formed the PAC. ● The PAC organised a protest against the pass laws, which resulted in the Sharpeville massacre on 31 March 1960. ● After this massacre, the ANC and the PAC where banned and they then formed their military wings, Umkhonto we Sizwe and Poqo respectively. Unit 9: The Rivonia Trial and its consequences ● On 11 July 1963, ANC leaders were arrested at Liliesleaf Farm, resulting in the Rivonia Trial. Eight of the 10 arrested leaders, including Nelson Mandela and Walter Sisulu, were found guilty of treason and sentenced to life imprisonment. ● Many ANC leaders fled South Africa and established the ANC as an exile movement. ● The trial had the impact of crippling the ANC within South Africa. Unit 10: Apartheid becomes an international word ● Many countries around the world practised some form of informal segregation. For this reason, segregation in South Africa was not considered as something unique. However, after 1948, when South Africa legalised segregation, calling it apartheid, and used brutal means to enforce it, the world did take note of it and apartheid became a unique word. ● After 1948 South Africa’s apartheid policy placed in the international spotlight. Many countries abhorred this policy and South Africa became increasingly isolated. 192 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

15 Topic XX Unit Summary and questions Questions for Topic 5 Question 1: 1.1 Explain how the following beliefs and ideologies led to the origins and formulation of the apartheid policy in 1948: 1.1.1 colonialism 1.1.2 segregation 1.1.3 eugenics 1.1.4 racism 4 x 2 (8) 1.2 What was the key diﬀerence between segregation and apartheid? 1 x 2 (2) 1.3 Would it be correct to say that apartheid originated in South Africa before 1948? Explain your reasoning. 1 x 2 (2) 1.4 What were the main reasons why Afrikaner leaders opted for the apartheid policy in 1948 at a time when the world was adopting human rights? 2 x 2 (4) 1.5 In what ways did the apartheid policy contradict the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights (UNDHR)? 3 x 2 (6) Question 2: 2.1 Explain how the Hertzog government applied a ‘civilised labour policy’ in the 1920s that favoured white workers. 2 x 2 (4) 2.2 Explain how the eﬀects of the Great Depression made labour and race relations in South Africa more complex. 2 x 2 (4) 2.3 What influence did the findings of the Carnegie Commission have on oﬃcial labour policy of the South African government? 2 x 2 (4) Question 3: 3.1 Explain why the issues of race became such an important factor in the context of South Africa by 1948. 2 x 2 (4) 3.2 Explain how industrialisation and urbanisation underpinned the political decisions of the Afrikaner Party and the National Party in the 1940s. 2 x 2 (4) 3.3 What influence did the recommendations of the Sauer and Fagan Commissions have on the decision of the NP to implement apartheid? 2 x 2 (4) Question 4: 4.1 How did DF Malan mobilise the white electorate support for his apartheid policy in the 1948 election? 2 x 2 (4) 4.2 How did Malan’s government create a racist state in South Africa between 1949 and 1953? Answer in paragraph format. 5 x 2 (10) © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 193

2 15 Topic XX Unit Summary and questions 4.3 Explain the eﬀects that apartheid legislation had on: 4.3.1 traditional authority 4.3.2 family life 4.3.3 educational standards of black school children and students 4.3.4 race relations 4.3.5 labour relations. 5 x 2 (10) 4.4 Choose any three apartheid laws that curtailed the political rights of individuals who were classified as non-white. Explain how these laws did that. 3 x 2 (6) Question 5: 5.1 In Topic 5 reference is made to the Freedom Charter being based on the principles of a ‘socialist democracy’. Using the contents of this document, explain why it is viewed in this way. 3 x 2 (6) 5.2 Part of the reason why the NP government banned the Freedom Charter was that it was viewed as a ‘communist’ document. What gave rise to this perception? 1 x 2 (2) 5.3 What was the significance of the Freedom Charter in the context of South Africa? 1 x 2 (2) 5.4 Why was the NP so vehemently opposed to the Freedom Charter in 1955? 1 x 2 (2) Question 6: 6.1 Explain how the nature of resistance to apartheid changed between 1952 and 1960. 1 x 2 (2) 6.2 Comment on whether or not the Sharpeville massacre can be viewed as a turning point in the resistance movement? 1 x 2 (2) 6.3 Why did the international community react the way they did after the events at Sharpeville? 1 x 2 (2) 6.4 How did the South African government attempt to break up the resistance movement during the 1960s? 3 x 1 (3) 194 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

1 Topic XX Unit Answers to questions Topic 1 Question 1: Match the items in Column B with the people in Column A. 1.1 I 1.2 D 1.3 H 1.4 E 1.5 K 1.6 F 1.7 C 1.8 A 1.9 J 1.10 B. Question 2: Explain what each of the following are in the context of the Russian Revolution and the events that followed: 2.1 A form of local government in Russia before the 1917 Revolutions. 2.2 An advisory council appointed by the Tsar according to the October Manifesto. 2.3 Women’s movement / department set up by the Bolsheviks. 2.4 Worker’s councils that challenged the duma and later the provisional government for power. 2.5 Marxist term for working class. 2.6 Lenin’s underground Bolshevik mouthpiece; means the Spark. 2.7 Secret police under the Bolsheviks. 2.8 Communist Party newspaper; title means the Truth. 2.9 Wealthier, enterprising peasants who challenged communist control. 2.10 Wealthier, enterprising small factory owners who qualified for a tax concession under the NEP but lost the vote because of this. Question 3: Complete the following sentences by filling in the correct place names. 3.1 St Petersburg 3.2 Germany (then known as the Kingdom of Prussia in the German Confederation) 3.3 St Petersburg 3.4 Brest-Litovsk 3.5 Ekaterinburg 3.6 Petrograd. 3.7 Kshesinsky Palace (former Smolny Institute) 3.8 Kronstadt 3.9 Siberia 3.10 Moscow © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 195

12 Topic XX Unit Answers to questions Question 4: How did Lenin propose to deal with these problems in Russia? 4.1 Food shortages: Initially make land available for peasants to grow food and to trade surplus with the towns. 4.2 Feudal privileges: Abolish them with immediate eﬀect. 4.3 World War I: End the war at all costs. 4.4 Class distinction: Abolish classes by taking away privileges. 4.5 Capitalism: Replace it with communism. 4.6 Land: confiscate and redistribute the land. 4.7 Worker’s rights: Extend these to institute equality and fairness according to Marxist privileges. Question 5: How did Stalin’s modernisation drive aﬀect each of the following: 5.1 Industry: ● Electrification and mechanisation ● Centralisation and state control ● Set targets and forced production to meet them ● Organised and moved workers where the state needed them ● Abolished the Nepmen as a separate class ● Built new towns to house workers ● Forced workers to work harder and longer. 5.2 Agriculture: ● Forced collectivisation of land ● State farms introduced ● Mechanisation: provided the peasants with modern machinery and equipment to speed up production. ● Set targets and expected increased yield ● Electrification ● Liquidated kulaks as a class. 5.3 Education and literacy: ● Huge drive to solve illiteracy ● Schools were built and made accessible ● State provided education but taught propaganda. 5.4 Women and family life: ● Life was hard; virtually no consumer goods were produced ● Divorce and abortion became more diﬃcult as it defied Stalin’s projected propaganda of happy families ● Women initially had more freedom than under Lenin ● Equality in factories for women ● Rapidly built small apartments made housing diﬃcult ● Women were the focus of much Stalinist propaganda. 196 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

1 Topic XX Unit Answers to questions 5.5 Infrastructure: ● Railways and roads were extended to improve industry, agriculture and trade. 5.6 Life of workers (working class) ● Worker’s councils were included in the decision making process ● Workers worked long hours for low pay ● Their living conditions were often diﬃcult and rudimentary although the state did provide housing ● Rewards were given to the best workers and hard work was glorified e.g. Stakhanov ● Punishment was metered out for failing to produce enough or make targets. 5.7 Life of peasants: ● Land was confiscated and collectivised ● Peasants worked for the State ● The projected targets that had to be met, made life diﬃcult ● Many were unskilled and illiterate – they struggled to operate machinery ● Harsh punishment for failure to conform. Question 6: Comparative table See your notes and the answers to Question 5 above to assist you with this task Question 7: Propaganda poster: Interpret clues to determine the message: This poster is an idyllic portrayal of Stalinist Russia and gives the viewer the idea that conditions for the people of Russia are close to perfect. It highlights electrification, mechanisation and modernisation around the group in the middle. The workers are also portrayed unrealistically as they all seem very young and strong. The portrayal of society is shown as a civilised and developed one where the transformation had progressed with huge benefits for the working class. The message is exaggerated for eﬀect and to give the impression that Stalin’s polices have been a huge success. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 197

12 Topic XX Unit Answers to questions Topic 2 1 Include the following on your mind map to show who benefited from the boom years during the 1920s in the USA: a Sharecroppers – especially in the Midwest ● They struggled after Roosevelt’s Administration imposed targets; many ended up in the slums of cities. ● The Dust Bowl conditions left the area without top soil and farming was negatively aﬀected. b The unemployed ● Although much was done to solve unemployment, the problem was only solved when WW II absorbed many as soldiers after 1941. c Black Americans (in inner cities and the South) ● Did benefit, but did not benefit equally to white Americans. ● Black sharecroppers were impoverished. ● They still suﬀered greatly due to the results of the Great Depression. ● Many remained unemployed and found it diﬃcult to get out of the economic depression. ● Still had to deal with segregation, racism and prejudice. d Immigrants ● Due to the economic woes, immigration from Europe was curtailed. ● Many were deported. e Working-class women ● Some did benefit from employment schemes, but many still remained unskilled by the end of the Depression. ● Many schemes only looked after the interests of men. ● The Social Securities Act left domestic workers out (many of whom were women). ● Sexual discrimination in the workplace was not addressed. f Middle class ● They felt that the socialist aid of the government was geared more to working class frustration. 198 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

1 Topic XX Unit Answers to questions Question 2: Causes of the Depression Historians and economists diﬀer on the main causes but use the ones provided on the mind map and then expand on these. These causes could form the basic framework for an essay question: 1 Overproduction: ● Link to the boom and bust cycle of capitalism ● Also the glut and overproduction after World War I ● Oversupply aﬀected farmers especially badly as products could not be stored ● Mass production and consumerism of the 1920s led to an oversupply that the domestic market could not absorb ● Tariﬀs limited overseas trade ● Add in comment son how this led to the Great Depression. 2 Buying on credit and speculation: ● The boom years led to speculation as more and more Americans began to buy on credit ● Banks made loans available and hire purchase schemes allowed instant gratification and strategies to pay oﬀ the debt at a high interest rate ● Many ordinary Americans with low savings in the bank and no safety net ran into trouble when things began to go wrong ● A high degree of optimism prevailed, leading to expectations of making a quick buck ● Greed and over speculation led to problems in the economy. 3 Laissez faire policies: ● The Republican Administrations in the 1920s believed in the corrective power of capitalism – that the depression would correct itself in the boom-bust-boom cycle ● It believed in big business and ignored the flaws in the economy ● Avoided intervening in economy when it was necessary – this was government’s hands-oﬀ policy ● By time Hoover wanted to intervene, it was too late and the economy collapsed. 4 Tariﬀs: ● Due to over-production and competition, the US decided to impose high tariﬀs on imported goods from Europe to protect the local producers ● This did not have the desired eﬀect as Europe retaliated by imposing counter tariﬀs ● Soon American producers experienced a glut and had to cut back to produce less ● This had a detrimental eﬀect on the economy. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 199

12 Topic XX Unit Answers to questions 5 Uneven distribution of wealth: ● Most of the wealth in the US was centred in the hands of 5% of the population ● The rich could sustain themselves during the hard times when other Americans couldn’t who looked to the government for help ● When matters went wrong in 1929, the economic imbalance led to economic collapse. 6 Problems in banking: ● Many banks were not regulated ● Many gave credit too easily ● When there was a run on banks to withdraw savings in 1929, the banks couldn’t meet the demand. Question 3: Consequences of the Great Depression Use the points below as a guideline to what should be included on your mind map. ● Social consequences: ● Poverty, hardship, unemployment, malnutrition, evictions, family breakdown, suicides, migrations ● Social security and pensions ● Public works programmes improved services. ● Economic consequences: ● Regulation of industry ● Economic stagnation ● Slump in trade. ● Political consequences: ● The Republicans lost the 1932 election ● Hoover lost to FD Roosevelt ● The Democrats took oﬃce. Question 4: Explaining terms Use these basic guidelines as the basis for your answers: a boom years: a period of economic growth b protective tariﬀs: high import duties to protect local producers c America Dream: the dream to own a home with a picket fence and to live comfortably d laissez faire policy: leave to do – little or no government interference or regulation e Tin Lizzie: Nickname for the Model T Ford f Policy of isolation: withdrawal from international conflicts and aﬀairs; neutrality g mass production: used in factories to produce goods quicker and by machine h Jim Crow laws: segregation laws in the American South 200 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

1 Topic XX Unit Answers to questions i trading on the margins: speculators often only paid for a portion of a share’s value hoping to sell it oﬀ for a profit and then pay the share’s value in full. This risk did not always work and was a disaster when the economic collapse occurred because people could not pay the portions they still owed and the share values dropped as well, leaving these people with valueless shares and debts. j rugged individualism: the phrase used often by Herbert Hoover during his time as president. It refers to the idea that each individual should be able to help themselves out, and that the government does not need to involve itself in people’s economic lives nor in national economics in general. Hoover’s idea of “rugged individualism” reflected his idea of how the federal government should not interfere with the American people during the Great Depression. Providing large-scale humanitarian eﬀorts, Hoover feared, would injure “the initiative and enterprise of the American people.” Rugged individualism may have come from an annoyance at the unprecedented government involvement with the economy during World War I. When the Great Depression started, Hoover tried to use rugged individualism to end it, insisting that the problem would fix itself and that the government didn’t need to interfere. Unfortunately, it did not, and the economy continued to suﬀer. Question 5: New Deal agencies The following extract includes the Acts and agencies that made up the New Deal. You should categories these into the three categories. The Acts ● Emergency Banking Act 1933 ● The Federal government insured people’s deposits in banks against losses caused by public panic. This helped restore the public’s confidence in the nation’s banking system ● National Industrial Recovery Act 1933 ● This act had three parts to it. It set up the Public Works Administration (PWA) to manage public works projects; The PWA spent $7 billion and employed millions of men. It set up the National Recovery Administration to set up codes of practices for such things as hours worked, wages, unfair competition and outlawing child labour. 16 million workers were covered by these code and child labour was outlawed. Workers went on to a 8 hours week and a minimum wage of $1.25 was introduced. The third strand of the NIRA was to give trade unions the legal right to bargain with employers. Membership of trade unions increased after the introduction of this act. NIRA was declared unconstitutional in 1935. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 201

12 Topic XX Unit Answers to questions ● Agricultural Adjustment Act 1933 ● This act paid farmers to limit the amount of crops they grew or simply to dig back into the ground crops already grown. The federal government bought farm animals and then slaughtered then to raise the price of farm products. Between 1933 and 1937, farm prices doubled but in 1936 the AAA was declared unconstitutional. ● Tennessee Valley Development Act 1933 ● This set up the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). Its sole task was to re-develop the Tennessee Valley which encompassed 7 states and 40,000 square miles. HEP stations were built, flood control was introduced as was soil conservation. The valley was regenerated. ● National Labour Relations Act 1935 ● This act forced employers to deal with trade unions. Workers were also given the right to form and join trade unions and to take part in collective bargaining. A board was set up to investigate and punish those companies’ bosses who did not abide by the rules of the NLRA. In 1935 trade union membership stood at 3,6 million. By 1941 it was 8,6 million. In 1935 the CIO (Congress of Industrial Organisations) came into being. ● Social Security Act 1935 ● This act set up the first national old age pensions scheme. Workers and employers had to pay into a federal pension fund. Each state was also expected to work out a plan for unemployment insurance. This one act covered 35 million people despite opposition from Republicans who felt the whole idea smacked of socialism. ● Soil Conservation Act 1936 ● The federal government paid subsidies to farmers who agreed to leave land fallow or planted crops that put nitrogen back into the soil. The federal government also financed research into soil conservation. ● Fair Labour Standards Act 1938 ● The FLSA sort to cut the maximum hours someone could work and to raise the minimum wage for those who worked in inter-state trade. This act gave protection to over 13 million people. It introduced a 40 hour week and a minimum wage of 40 cents an hour. ● Agricultural Adjustment Act 1938 ● The act introduced the Federal government subsidising the price of many farm products. The aim was to gradually increase the subsidy until farm prices reached their pre-1914 figure to give all farmers a guaranteed minimum income. 202 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

1 Topic XX Unit Answers to questions The Agencies ● Civilian Conservation Corps of 1933 ● This employed jobless single men between the ages of 18 and 25. They worked for 6 months in mountains and forests where they were taught forestry, flood control and fire prevention. Nearly 3 million men took part in the scheme which ran from 1933 to 1941. ● Works Progress Administration of 1935 ● The WPA coordinated all public works schemes. It spent over US$10,5 billion of Federal money and employed 3,8 million men from 1935 to 1941. It had built 77 000 bridges, 24 000 miles of sewers, over one million kilometres of road, 285 airports, 122 000 public buildings and 11 000 schools. ● Reconstruction Finance Corporation ● This agency loaned money to state and local governments to assist the poor. It also lent money to firms which were in debt or wanted to invest. ● Farm Credit Administration ● This agency used Federal money to pay oﬀ farm creditors and save farmers from bankruptcy. ● Home Owners Loan Corporation 1933 ● This agency used Federal money to pay of mortgages so that home owners did not lose their homes. (Source: www.historylearningsite.co.uk/new_deal.htm) Topic 3 Question 1: a Swastika b The Communist Party c The SS d Kristallnacht e Labour f Burnt g Warsaw h Aryans i Star of David j Gestapo © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 203

12 Topic XX Unit Answers to questions Question 2: 2.1 Poster of an idealised Hitler 2.1.1 Swastika 2.1.2 Shows determination, preparedness to fight. 2.1.3 The Wehrmacht/ troops/ army. 2.1.4 Gothic/ traditional/ old style/ refers to heritage and German roots. 2.1.5 The eagle was the German and Nazi symbol for power. The reference and connection is made as Hitler is portrayed to be the saviour of Germany. 2.2 Flyer 2.2.1 To identify them as Jews, to humiliate them and to discriminate against them. 2.2.2. It refers to their religion, which is close to their hearts and it is very disrespectful and humiliating. 2.2.3 Jews were viewed as enemies of the German people or ‘nation’. It refers to the loss of citizenship for the Jews. They are dehumanised and degraded in this flyer and portrayed as an inferior race. Question 3: 3.1 The German family are drawn as ideal Aryans – their physical appearance states that. Jews, however, are portrayed using caricature as their physical features have been exaggerated. / They are portrayed as exploiters of the German people. 3.2 All non-Jewish Germans. 3.3 Another connection to Nazi ideology – reference is made to the German people and the ‘Fatherland’, showing Jews as being separate from that goal or connection. Question 4: 4.1 The Nazi Party; the Jews 4.2 Yamulka, dark complexion and large nose, Jewish scandals. 4.3 Militarist ideals; fight for survival of the German nation, their tactics WILL ‘kill’ or remove Jews. 4.4 Jewish businessmen are portrayed as pests or as being bad for the German economy; they are a threat from the inside/ internal threat. The economy has problems because of Jewish greed and scandals. Therefore they will be destroyed by the Nazis to save the German economy. 204 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

1 Topic XX Unit Answers to questions Topic 4 CASE STUDY 1: Rival nationalisms in South Africa Question 1: a A system of domination of a larger, more powerful state of the economy, political system and society of another country. The dominating colonising power exploits the resources of the occupied territory. b A strong movement that focuses on unity, independence and solidarity where the interests of the nation are viewed as being superior to any other nation. c A movement that promoted unity across the African continent to achieve independence and freedom for all Africans. d The practice to replace European oﬃcials and bureaucrats with Africans in the period of rapid transformation at the end of colonialism. e A system where people rule themselves in all aspects, fully independent of foreign rule. f The ideas of Marcus Garvey, a pan-Africanist, who promoted the idea of ‘Africa for the Africans’ and the return of all Africans to Africa. g A view that the political control that colonising nations had over the colonies has been replaced by economic control, making the newly independent African countries economically dependent on their former colonisers. h Africanists were extreme African nationalists in South Africa who promoted black pride and national exclusivity; they supported the pan-Africanist view of ‘Africa for the Africans.’ i A Swahili word meaning freedom. j This refers to the gradual merging of societies in such a way that they influence each other culturally; the smaller group usually adopts the culture of the larger group. Question 2: Inclusive nationalism is more positive and is a broader view of nationalism. It is aimed at including many cultures and groups into the nation. Exclusive nationalism is destructive as it benefits one group over the others. It can be accompanied by negative behaviour, e.g. stereotyping, segregation polices, discrimination, etc. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 205

12 Topic XX Unit Answers to questions Question 3: A possible outline of an answer is provided below. In your answer, make sure you draw the concepts listed in the question into your argument. ● Colonialism laid the foundation for social, political and economic separation in SA. This led to separate identities based especially on racism and segregation. ● Discriminatory legislation in the British colonies and the Boer republics kept the non-whites in a position of servitude and social inferiority. ● In 1910 Britain granted self-government to white English- and Afrikaans-speaking South Africans. Non-whites were excluded. It was diﬃcult to forge a common white identity let alone a non-racial one. Nationalism developed along racial lines. ● Afrikaner nationalists broke away in protest against a broader SA nationalism in 1914 and formed the National Party. ● From the 1920s to the 1940s more and more political and social organisations were formed to promote Afrikaner culture, identity and nationalism. ● Industrialisation and capitalism in SA created social and economic classes that were also along racial lines. ● Migration and urbanisation internally posed a threat to white control and competition for jobs. ● External threats such as the perceived threat of communism (during the Cold War), pan-Africanism and African nationalism led to more repressive legislation under apartheid. ● There were signs of open defiance during the 1950s and 1960s which resulted in more repressive legislation and banning. ● Many resistance groups became more militant due to the repression and joined with other African nationalists in Africa and overseas to build solidarity to free Africans. ● SA resembled a police state as States of Emergency during the 1980s especially gave the SAP and the SADF wide powers of arrest. ● Due to economic sanctions, the rising instability in the country and the collapse of communism in the USSR, the Afrikaner government abolished apartheid and chose democracy. ● Reconciliation and moderate policies have promoted a more inclusive form of nationalism and nation-building since 1994. Question 4: Remember that in a comparison your focus is primarily on similarities (you show diﬀerences when asked to ‘contrast’). ● Both movements aimed at freedom for a specific group. ● Both groups had a moderate majority and an extremist minority. ● The extremist minority nationalists in both movements resorted to violence to achieve their goals. 206 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

1 Topic XX Unit Answers to questions ● African nationalism was more inclusive as it promoted a non-racial SA nationalism. ● Afrikaner nationalism was more exclusive as it focused on a nationalism that was based on separation and domination. Question 5: Your essay should contain the points outlined below: ● The movement was originally led by urban-based intellectuals and educated leaders who used passive resistance to draw attention to their aims. ● There was no national leadership that was strong and coordinated enough to make a countrywide impact. ● Police actions, e.g. harassment, made it diﬃcult to communicate. ● Poor infrastructure and organisation hindered national development. ● The formation of the ANCYL led to a new approach of younger leaders who had a sense of urgency for reform. They encouraged a campaign of mass civil defiance and disobedience to grow nationalism in SA. ● Increasing industrialisation led to an increase in urban workers who showed solidarity in trade unions and political organisations. ● After Sharpeville the movement adopted a definite campaign to become a broader nationalist movement. ● Moderate ANC leaders joined with moderate Afrikaner nationalists to promote national reconciliation for the 1994 election. CASE STUDY 2: Rival nationalisms in the Middle East Question 6: 1 E 6 D 2 J 7 A 3 G 8 C 4 H 9 I 5 F 10 K Question 7: 1 G 6 B 2 I 7 K 3 A 8 D 4 E 9 H 5 C 10 F © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 207

12 Topic XX Unit Answers to questions Question 8: 8.1 After the War of Independence in 1948 and the defeat of the Arab military coalition, Palestinian nationalists were stronger in Gaza, West Bank and Golan Heights. After the 1967 Six Days War, Israel had increased her territory six- fold. Israel pushed into the occupied territories and many refugees fled into neighbouring Arab states. 8.2 8.2.1 Jerusalem: significance in three major religions; strategically important, historical importance. 8.2.2 Westbank: It is a security risk as the enclave stretches way into Israeli territory; diﬃcult to control. 8.2.3 Gulf of Aqaba (Straits of Tiran): easy to blockade this route and cut oﬀ Israeli trade. 8.2.4 The canal is vital to trade easily between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. 8.2.5 Situated on the coast; easy to launch attacks into Israel and the capital. 8.3 The establishment of the State of Israel by Jewish nationalists led to the 1948 war by retaliatory Arab nationalists. / The Jewish nationalists used military force to withstand an Arab attack. The forces of nationalism on both sides added cohesion to the destructive missions. / In 1967 the Jewish nationalists launched a surprise attack on their Arab neighbours. Israel was victorious and increased her territory markedly. Question 9: 9.1 Both sides are intolerant. Greed, aggression and violence all influence decision making negatively. There is no room for reconciliation or concessions. 9.2 Unity and cohesion could be used positively to create a feeling of belonging. Question 10: The rabbi calls for more compassion, love, tolerance, acceptance, understanding and humane attitudes to solve the problems in the Middle East. People need to show they care. 208 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

1 Topic XX Unit Answers to questions CASE STUDY 3: Nationalism in the Gold Coast Question 11: 11.1 Nationalist aims: ● Unity and cohesion ● Human dignity and human rights ● National sovereignty ● Achieve political unity and then address other problems ● First achieve political unity and then establish economic unity ● Representative institutions are essential (self-government) ● Reject servitude to repressive system of colonialism. 11.2 In many ways, Nkrumah has become an iconic figure in the story of African nationalism. He achieved political freedom and unity for Ghana. Many other states and leaders were inspired by his leadership. He became a spokesperson for Africans in the decolonisation period. He undertook many socio-economic projects at the outset of independence that benefited his people but soon neglected his promises. / No, he did not keep to his original goals as he began to abuse his power and ruled as a dictator. The press and media were censored and all opposition to his rule was silenced. His government was inept and corrupt. / His failure to keep to his promises was driven by personal reasons as well: he was obsessed with his position of power, arrogant, lost contact with reality, and ignored the wishes of his people. Question 12: They honour him selectively; romanticising the good and remaining silent on the bad things he did. He, in many ways, is seen as an African pioneer who broke ground for many other nations to achieve liberation. His abuse of his people’s trust and loyalty is ignored and he is still seen as an honourable African leader. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 209

12 Topic XX Unit Answers to questions Topic 5 Question 1: 1.1 1.1.1 Colonialism was based on beliefs of a social hierarchy in which the Caucasian and European races were regarded superior to the indigenous ones. Colonial rule at the Cape led to diﬀerent social attitudes where people of colour were viewed as inferior and classes arose based on colour. The whites were entitled and possessed power to rule over the other races. 1.1.2 Segregation in Cape society led to certain social attitudes and practices. Separation of slaves and slave owners laid the foundation of economic classes that tied in with the social hierarchy. Separate areas were designated for the separate races from the earliest times, e.g. indigenous groups and colonial society. As settlement progressed more of the indigenous peoples became displaced and were moved further away from towns. 1.1.3 Eugenics suggested that indigenous people were lower on the ladder of social hierarchy than whites. So-called scientific premises of eugenics suggested that the whites were superior in intellect and civilisation to the colonised peoples. Children from mixed marriages were viewed as inferior and impure. This led to stereotyping, prejudices and discrimination. 1.1.4 Racism was prevalent in colonial times as whites were viewed more favourably than non-whites. Fears of an uprising by indigenous peoples drove the racism, as did attitudes that arose in the colonial and imperialist period. European languages, customs, appearance, intellect, culture, etc. were viewed as being superior, leading to social attitudes that were based on discrimination. 4 x 2 (8) 1.2 They were diﬀerent in that apartheid set up a legislative framework that was enforced by the state. 1 x 2 (2) 1.3 Yes: the foundations were laid during colonial rule and apartheid merely built on attitudes and practices that already existed. 1 x 3 (3) 1.4 The historic belief in segregation as the best policy to accommodate diﬀerence and cultural identity. / The increasing fear of a black uprising that would lead to a black majority government after the 1946 strike and other examples of unrest. / Afrikaner nationalists promoted apartheid as the best policy to maintain political control by the Afrikaner nation. / Other groups from ex- colonies overseas were calling for equality – this was seen as a threat. / The impact of WWII on many inhabitants in the colonies as they demanded independence (as a result of the Atlantic Charter and the UNHDR) threatened many Afrikaners. / The cultural 210 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

1 Topic XX Unit Answers to questions identity of the Afrikaners had to be protected. Apartheid was thought to be the best option to deal with the challenges of urbanisation. Any two: 2 x 2 (4) 1.5 Its very premise of racism contradicted all the basic human rights in the charter of the UN as it denied certain South Africans basic rights, e.g. equality, freedom of choice, association, movement, etc. 3 x 2 (6) Question 2: 2.1 His government introduced a ‘civilised’ vs ‘uncivilised’ labour policy – classified according to race and level of industrialisation. Skilled labour was reserved for whites and unskilled labour for blacks. These terms suggest prejudice and judgment based on racial classification. 2 x 2 (4) 2.2 The Great Depression increased competition for resources and employment. It also increased the need of many who looked to the government for assistance. The Pact Government (coalition government between the NP and Labour) sought to protect white labour above black labour. The migration into cities of people looking for employment added to the competition. The Pass Laws meant that blacks were in urban areas illegally unless they had a work permit. Workers spent time working together, but politically and socially, society was segregated. This made race and labour relations more complex. 2 x 2 (4) 2.3 It established that about 18% of the white population could be classified as poor whites. The Pact government then established projects and departments to create jobs for whites to alleviate poverty, e.g. ISCOR, SAR & H. Many Afrikaans churches also started schemes to alleviate the eﬀects of poverty. 2 x 2 (4) Question 3: 3.1 The eﬀects of WWII led to many soldiers returning with new enthusiasm for independence and freedom. It led to the rise of pan-Africanism and African nationalism which would culminate in decolonisation. This alarmed Afrikaners who feared a loss of power and control if the black majority gained independence. Increasing mass action internally, e.g. the 1946 strike and other examples of labour unrest, caused concern as white labour called for government intervention to stop the spread of instability. Leftist elements in the labour movement alarmed the government. 2 x 2 (4) 3.2 Increasingly industrialisation needed large pools of cheap labour. This could be found in the reserves (later homelands) and locations near towns. Cheap labour was also needed on the farms. The eﬀects of the global war and increasing urbanisation in the 1940s led to perceptions of a threat in the urban areas. Commissions were appointed to investigate the best way forward for SA. Racial policies were based on these recommendations. Some Afrikaners viewed the © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 211

12 Topic XX Unit Answers to questions policies of the United Party, e.g. collapse of the colour bar in industry, to be a threat to white labour. 2 x 2 (4) 3.3 The Fagan Commission’s recommendation to accept that blacks and whites would live side by side with legislation to assist development of all groups. The Sauer Commission recommended total segregation as the only solution to avoid conflict among races. The NP supported the findings of the Sauer Commission. 2 x 2 (4) Question 4: 4.1 He organised an eﬀective campaign to gather support by house-to-house visits and eﬃcient use of the media. He played on the fears that the white electorate were experiencing at the time. The demarcation of constituencies (gerrymandering) favoured the NP. 2 x 2 (4) 4.2 Must be a paragraph containing points such as these: ● He immediately passed racist laws to set up the framework for social engineering. ● The Population Registration Act: classified all South Africans into racial classes. Privileges and rights were aﬀorded to groups according to their racial classification. ● Group Areas Act: areas were demarcated according to race. ● Immorality Amendment Act: outlawed sexual relations across the colour bar. ● Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act: prevented marriage across the colour bar. 5 x 2 (10) 4.3 4.3.1 These were challenged by urbanising individual but the NP boosted their authority under the guise of self-development in the rural areas. 4.3.2 Migrant workers were only viewed as temporary residents of towns and cities. They were not allowed to bring their family along which led to the breakdown of the family unit. 4.3.3 The Bantu Education Act of 1953 created separate educational departments for each racial group. The education of white pupils gained preference and the educational standards of non-white pupils was inferior. Whites were educated to rule, while blacks were educated to be labourers 4.3.4 Race relations deteriorated as non-whites were dehumanised and treated with a lack of respect and dignity. Conflict between races increased as resistance increased. 4.3.5 Labour relations were strained as black workers resisted the restrictions and inequality. They were not allowed to join trade unions. It was diﬃcult to segregate labour in the workplace despite all the other forms of segregation. 5 x 2 (10) 212 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

1 Topic XX Unit Answers to questions 4.4 Learners choose any three apartheid laws that curtailed the political rights of individuals who were classified as non-white and then explain how these laws did that. [Refer to Unit 4 in Topic 5.] 3 x 2 (6) Question 5: 5.1 The Freedom Charter promotes socialist principles, e.g. land should be nationalised and distributed to all who work on it, mining should be nationalised and wealth shared, promotion of equality, free housing, education and health services. 3 x 2 (6) 5.2 Many leftist organisations were part of the compilation and drafting process. The nationalisation clauses were communistic as well as the more generalised clauses that expected ‘housing, education, etc.’ 1 x 2 (2) 5.3 The Freedom Charter provided a blueprint for democracy and stipulated the demand for a free and democratic SA. 1 x 2 (2) 5.4 It contradicted all they stood for as they were against racial mixing and allowing their model of society to be undermined. 1 x 2 (2) Question 6: 6.1 In the early 1950s the nature of the resistance was non-violent or passive. However, it was starting to become a mass movement. By the 1960s resistance was a mass movement and after Sharpeville the resistance became more militant. 1 x 2 (2) 6.2 Yes: due to the banning of the liberation organisations and the formation of two military wings, the resistance became more openly defiant and violent. Resistance gained support overseas and sanctions made matters more diﬃcult for the SA government. 1 x 2 (2) 6.3 The international outcry was heard after peaceful protestors were killed at Sharpeville – most shot in the back. It shocked the world that the SA government was so brutal and so many resisters overseas felt that pressure needed to be placed on the SA government to change their policies. 1 x 2 (2) 6.4 Harsh reactionary force using the police and armed forces. Also declared a state of emergency and passed more restrictive legislation to curb resistance. 3 x 1 (3) © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 213

4 12 Topic XX Unit Exam Papers History Grade 11 Examination Practice Time: 3 hours Marks: 150 Instructions • Candidates MUST answer three questions. • Choose at least one source-based question and one essay question. • All questions count 50 marks. • Candidates may choose to do two questions on the same theme. SOURCE-BASED QUESTIONS Question 1: To what extent were Lenin’s policies between 1918 and 1924 aimed at saving the Socialist revolution? Refer to Sources 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D and 1E and then answer the following questions: 1.1 Refer to Source 1A and your own knowledge: 1.1.1 Explain each of the following in the context of the source: a capitalist governments 1 x 2 (2) b socialist revolutions 1 x 2 (2) c armies of imperialism. 1 x 2 (2) 1.1.2 Using evidence from the source indicate why Russian industry and production were in a poor state by 1920. 2 x 2 (4) 1.1.3 The source mentions confiscation as a policy adopted by the Bolsheviks during War Communism. From your own knowledge, describe two other methods that were used to “achieve the socialist revolution”. 2 x 3 (6) 1.1.4 Why, according to this source, was it necessary for Lenin to adopt a new policy in 1921 that would focus on agriculture and the peasantry? 2 x 2 (4) 1.2 Use the evidence in Source 1B and your own knowledge to write a paragraph in response to the following question: 1.2.1 Do you think the assessment of the Kronstadt Revolutionary Committee that “Russia had become a state governed by the bayonet and the barred window” rather than “a glorious workers’ state” was accurate? Substantiate your argument with facts. (8) This question will be assessed according to the following rubric: Level Criteria Marks • Evidence used is not in the source. • Argument is illogical. Limited understanding of the question. 1 0–3 • Interpretation of source is weak. • Style is informal and communication is poor. • Argument is structured. • Basic understanding evident. 2 • Evidence is used in a competent way. 4–6 • Sound interpretation. • Written communication is cohesively represented. • Logical and cohesive argument. • Expert use of evidence. 3 • Thorough understanding of the question. 7–8 • Good interpretation. • Written skills are outstanding. 214 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

14 Topic XX Unit Exam Papers 1.3 Use your own knowledge and the evidence in Source 1C to answer the following questions: 1.3.1 What were the main aims of this poster? Refer to the caption and the visuals in your answer. 2 x 3 (6) 1.3.2 How reliable is this source to an historian studying the implementation of Lenin’s NEP in 1921? Give TWO reasons for your answer. 2 x 2 (4) 1.4 Examine Source 1C, Source 1D and Source 1E: 1.4.1 How is the photo in Source 1D useful to an historian investigating the eﬀects of the NEP? 2 x 2 (4) 1.4.2 In what way does Sources 1D contradict the message in the poster in Source 1C? 2 x 2 (4) 1.4.3 Refer to Source 1E. Why were so many Bolsheviks opposed to the NEP? 2 x 2 (4) [50] Question 2: What were the most important causes of the Great Depression in the USA by 1929? Refer to Source 2A, 2B, 2C, 2D and 2E. 2.1 Examine the evidence in Source 2A and use your own knowledge: 2.1.1 What TWO deductions can you make about changes in American society in the 1920s from Source 2A? Explain your answer. 2 x 2 (4) 2.1.2 What do the two adverts in the source indicate about consumerism, mass production and marketing in the urbanised communities in the US in the 1920s? Use clues from both sources as part of your answer. 3 x 3 (9) 2.1.3 Choose ONE of the visuals or the statistics in Source 2A to justify that the economic policy of the US government was based on the laissez-faire principle. Explain your reasoning with evidence from the source you have chosen. Remember to indicate which source you have selected. 2 x 2 (4) 2.2 Refer to Source 2B AND 2C and use your own knowledge to answer the following question. Your response should be in the form of a paragraph. 2.2.1 Compare the impact of “technological change” on life in US cities and in the countryside during the 1920s. (8) Your answer will be assessed using the following rubric: Level Criteria Marks • Evidence in the sources not used efficiently. • Comparison is illogical. 1 0–3 • Interpretation of sources is weak. • Style is informal and communication is poor. • Comparison is structured. • Evidence is used in a competent way. 2 4–6 • Sound interpretation of sources. • Written communication is cohesively represented. • Logical and cohesive writing. • Expert use of evidence and own knowledge. 3 7–8 • Good interpretation. • Written skills are outstanding. 2.3 Refer to Source 2D and use your own knowledge: 2.3.1 What do you think is the message of this song? 2 x 2 (4) 2.3.2 How is a song like this one useful as an historical source? Use clues in the source to explain your reasoning. 2 x 2 (4) © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 215

4 12 Topic XX Unit Exam Papers 2.4 Refer to Source 2E and use your own knowledge: 2.4.1 Explain what is meant by per capita income. 1 x 2 (2) 2.4.2 Explain how the statistics corroborate (support) the evidence in the photograph. 3 x 2 (6) 2.4.3 Using this source and your own knowledge, indicate why farmers were especially vulnerable when the Great Depression set in after 1930. 3 x 2 (6) [50] Question 3: What impact did eugenics have on Nazi race policies? Refer to Source 3A, 3B, 3C, 3D, 3E and use your own knowledge: 3.1 Refer to Source 3A and your own knowledge. 3.1.1. See Extract A. Would you agree that Francis Galton’s definition promotes the idea of ‘positive eugenics’? Explain your reasoning. 2 x 2 (4) 3.1.2 Do you agree with Galton’s statement that ‘morals’ should be left out of the discussion about the improvement of ‘race’? Substantiate your reasoning. 3 x 2 (6) 3.1.3 From your own knowledge and the evidence in Source 3A (Extract B), explain how the militaristic elements in German society in the 1930s helped the Nazis to spread their racial ideology. 2 x 2 (4) 3.1.4 Compare Extracts A and B to show how Nazi ideology was influenced by Galton’s ideas on eugenics. 2 x 2 (4) 3.2 Refer to Source 3B and your own knowledge: 3.2.1 Using your own knowledge, describe what the German ‘racial hygiene movement’ was. 1 x 3 (3) 3.2.2 The laws described in Extract A and B were enforced and supported by learned and educated people. From your own knowledge, explain why you think this was the case. 2 x 2 (4) 3.2.3 What is the author of Source 3B suggesting about bystander behaviour in Germany at the time of the passing of the “Blood Protection Law” and events such as Kristallnacht? Refer to the consequences of this lack of action for German Jews. 2 x 2 (4) 3.3 Paragraph question: Refer to A, B and C in Source 3C and use your own knowledge: 3.3.1 Explain the rationale or thinking behind each of the Nazi practices portrayed in Sources A, B and C and indicate how they each helped to further the Nazi concept of the German master race. (7) 3.4 Refer to the two propaganda posters in Source 3D: 3.4.1 By referring to three clever propaganda techniques, explain how the artists are promoting Nazi racial ideology. Refer to clues in both the posters (A and B). 3 x 3 (9) 3.5 Refer to Source 3E and use your own knowledge: 3.5.1 Would you agree with the evidence in this source that suggests that the genocide in Nazi Germany would not have happened without the cooperation of government oﬃcials, bureaucrats and ordinary Germans? Explain your reasoning clearly. 1 x 5 (5) [50] 216 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

14 Topic XX Unit Exam Papers EXTENDED WRITING QUESTIONS Instructions • Candidates need to answer at least one essay question. Topic 1: Challenges to capitalism: Question 1: Discuss Lenin’s economic policies between 1918 and 1924 and indicate to what extent they were a deviation from Communist ideology. [50] Topic 2: Crisis of capitalism: Question 2: Despite the growth and innovation of the 1920 era in the US, there were many weaknesses that were exposed when the New York Stock Exchange collapsed in 1929, ushering in the Great Depression. Discuss the most important weaknesses in the US economy by 1929 that caused the Great Depression. [50] Topic 3: Ideas of race in the late 19th and 20th centuries: Question 3: Eugenics formed the ideological background that allowed anti-Semitism to flourish. The mass murders and extermination of the Jews during the Holocaust was simply the logical conclusion of this ideology. To what extent is this an accurate assessment of Nazi policies between 1938 and 1945? [50] © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 217

4 12 Topic XX Unit Exam Papers Exam practice: Addendum of sources Question 1: SOURCE 1A The following extract is adapted from http://sfr-21.org/war-communism.html. This website debates issues that relate to past revolutions in order to link these to modern revolutionary strategies in the 21st century and to promote Socialism: At the time of the October Revolution in Russia, Lenin and others had hoped that workers throughout Europe would overthrow capitalist governments and achieve socialist revolutions. But when that did not take place, the Soviet Union found itself economically isolated and attacked on all sides by the invading armies of imperialism. While the Soviet Union fought back and defeated the invading armies by the end of 1920, the damage was done. Industry and machinery, already largely destroyed by the capitalists who fled during the revolution, were in shambles, many of the best workers had been killed or maimed at the front; agriculture, already hurt by war and demoralisation of the farmers, was further damaged by crop failure in 1920. The people in the cities were starving. To feed people in the cities, the Soviet government confiscated grain. As Lenin explained in his pamphlet, The Tax in Kind, “It was the war and the ruin that forced us into War Communism.” At the Tenth Congress of the Russian Communist Party in March 1921, Lenin called for a new policy: “Up to now we have been adapting ourselves to the tasks of war; we must now adapt ourselves to the conditions of peace.” SOURCE 1B The following extract describes the reaction of the Bolsheviks to the Kronstadt Rebellion. It is from http://www.johnclare.net/Russ8Kronstadt.htm: On 1 March 1921 a crowd of 15 000 soldiers met in Anchor Square in Kronstadt and declared a revolution. The ‘Kronstadt Revolutionary Committee’ published its own newspaper, which complained about the ‘constant fears of torture by the Cheka… the mass executions and a bloodletting which exceeds even the tsarist generals’… 218 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

14 Topic XX Unit Exam Papers ‘The glorious emblem of the workers’ state – the hammer and sickle – has been replaced by the bayonet and the barred window’ it declared. Trotsky was given the job of defeating the rebellion…In Petrograd, the Bolsheviks took the sailors’ families as hostages …On 5 March, Trotsky reached Kronstadt and called the sailors to surrender – or they would be ‘shot like partridges’. He knew that he had to act quickly – soon the pack ice would be melting and the naval base would become impregnable …But the first Bolshevik troops to attack Kronstadt were young and the Cheka with machine guns had to be placed behind them to stop them retreating. When they attacked on 7 March across the 5-mile stretch of open ice, the Kronstadt defenders mowed them down. Trotsky continued to bombard the Kronstadt fortress with artillery, and gathered an army of 50 000 crack* troops. On 16 March they attacked. In an 18-hour battle, 10 000 Red Guards were killed, but Kronstadt was taken. Hundreds of mutineers were imprisoned. 500 were shot on the spot, and a further 2 000 were executed over the next few months. The rest were sent to Siberia. * crack troops: expertly trained troops. SOURCE 1C: The Soviet poster, published in 1921, reads, ‘From the NEP Russia will come Socialist Russia.’ (Source: http://mises.org/story/3345) © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 219

4 12 Topic XX Unit Exam Papers SOURCE 1D: The photo alongside shows a market during the period of the NEP. It is from http://mail.esdnl.ca/~craig_ halliday/NEP.bmp SOURCE 1E: The following extract is from a lecture by Professor Gerhard Rempel from Western New England College in which he comments on the success of the NEP. It is from http://mars. wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/stalin/lectures/NEP.html. By 1923-1924 it was apparent that the regime was managing to stabilise itself, at least for the time being, as the economic revival made headway. The open, although limited, encouragement given to private enterprise led many in and out of Russia to conclude that “capitalism” had returned for good, and that the Communists had jettisoned their long-proclaimed ideological objectives, which might never have been seriously meant anyhow. No doubt many of the peasants expected the NEP to be permanent, and although the Nepmen had fewer such illusions, they too hoped the policy would last for some time. Many Communist Party members feared that NEP might be prolonged and fought to end it before it got out of hand. Perhaps indeed it might have lasted somewhat longer than it did, if it had not been for certain developments which restricted political freedom, in and out of the Party, at the very time when the regime was experimenting rather boldly with economic freedom. 220 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

14 Topic XX Unit Exam Papers Question 2 SOURCE 2A The statistics and advertisements below are from http://newman.baruch.cuny.edu/ digital/redscare/IMAGES The spending on advertising by US companies in 1927: ● Newspapers: $690 million ● Direct Mail: $400 million ● Magazines: $210 million ● Billboards: $75 million ● Radio: $7 million Advert A © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 221

4 12 Topic XX Unit Exam Papers Advert B This advert from www.tahg.org was published in the 1920s. The text in the advert reads: The Ford Runabout is a predictable partner and a happy companion for the boy who is making his mark in business and at school. It reduces distance from a matter of miles to a matter of minutes. By saving time and eﬀort, it makes larger earnings possible. And costing little to buy and keep going, it quickly pays for itself. When vacation times rolls round the Runabout enables the young businessman to reduce by hours the time between work and play. Let us tell you how easy it is to buy a Ford on the Weekly Purchase Plan. (Source: Ford Motor Company, Detroit, Michigan) 222 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

14 Topic XX Unit Exam Papers SOURCE 2B This extract describes changes in American society during the 1920s. It is adapted from eh.net/encyclopaedia/article/Smiley: The 1920s [was] a period of vigorous, vital economic growth…There is a rapid adoption of the automobile to the detriment of passenger rail travel. Though suburbs had been growing since the late nineteenth century their growth had been tied to rail or trolley access and this was limited to the largest cities. The flexibility of car access changed this and the growth of suburbs began to accelerate. The demands of trucks and cars led to a rapid growth in the construction of all-weather surfaced roads to facilitate their movement. The rapidly expanding electric utility networks led to new consumer appliances and new types of lighting and heating for homes and businesses. The introduction of the radio, radio stations, and commercial radio networks began to break up rural isolation, as did the expansion of local and long-distance telephone communications. Recreational activities such as travelling, going to movies, and professional sports became major businesses. The period saw major innovations in business organisation and manufacturing technology. SOURCE 2C This extract is from Nebraska: An Illustrated History, by Frederick Luebke, University of Nebraska, 1995, Lincoln, London. It deals with the impact of the economic growth on the quality of life in the US. ‘The character and quality of life changed dramatically in Nebraska during the 1920s … The eﬀects of technological change were most obvious in the cities. By the 1920s most small cities had paved streets, municipal electricity and water systems, telephone systems, streetlights, and sewage systems…The homes of most urban Nebraskans had running water and indoor plumbing…Electricity appeared in homes on a grand scale during the 1920s, at first for illumination but by the end of the decade for washing and sewing machines, irons, toasters, mixers and vacuum cleaners…Refrigerators began to replace ice-boxes for short-term food preservation, and electricity fans began to cool hot summer days…Change came more slowly for country people, who would wait for another decade or two for electric appliances. Their lives were more profoundly transformed by the gasoline- powered automobile and truck, where eﬀects were especially acute in sparsely populated agricultural states such as Nebraska.’ © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 223

4 12 Topic XX Unit Exam Papers SOURCE 2D These lyrics (words of a song) were written by James Langston Hughes, an American poet who is known for his insightful portrayals of the experiences of black Americans from Harlem to Chicago. He was influenced by the Blues that originated in the South. I, too, sing America. I am the darker brother. They send me to eat in the kitchen When company comes, But I laugh, And eat well, And grow strong. Tomorrow, I’ll be at the table When company comes. Nobody’ll dare Say to me, “Eat in the kitchen,” Then. Besides, They’ll see how beautiful I am And be ashamed – I, too, am America. 224 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

14 Topic XX Unit Exam Papers SOURCE 2E The following sources show the situation in the USA by 1930. The photo is from http:// history1900s.about.com. A photo showing a farm foreclosure The statistics are from www.newman.baruch.cuny.edu/ ● Rise in per capita income for top 1% of the population 1920–1929: 75% ● Rise in per capita income for nation as a whole 1920–1929: 9% ● Percentage of US families with no savings in 1929: 80% ● Farm Production in 1919: $21 billion and 1929: $11.8 billion ● Percentage of national income held by farmers in 1919: 16% and in 1929: 9% ● Number of farmers forced oﬀ the land in 1929: 435 000 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 225

4 12 Topic XX Unit Exam Papers Question 3: SOURCE 3A Extract A: In 1904 Francis Galton, the father of Eugenics, explained how eugenics could be applied to improve the human race: ‘Eugenics is the science which deals with all influences that improve and develop the inborn qualities of a race. But what is meant by “improvement”? We must leave morals as far as possible out of the discussion, on account of the almost hopeless diﬃculties they raise as to whether a character as a whole is good or bad … All would agree that it is better to be healthy than sick, vigorous than weak, well fitted than ill fitted for their part in life. In short, that it was better to be good than bad specimens of their kind, whatever that kind may be …The aim of eugenics is to represent each class or sect by its best specimens, causing them to contribute more than their proportion to the next generation … Eugenics cooperates with the workings of nature by ensuring that humanity shall be represented by the fittest races.’ Extract B: The following is an extract from Hitler’s comments on the Nazi ideology: ‘Hitler believed that ethnic and linguistic diversity weakened a nation and that democracy is a destabilising force because it placed power in the hands of ethnic minorities. The Nazi rationale was heavily invested in the militarist belief that great nations grow from military power, which in turn grows “naturally” from “rational, civilized cultures”. Hitler’s Nazi theory also claimed that the Aryan race is a master race, superior to all other races, that a nation is the highest creation of a race, and great nations (literally large nations) were the creation of great races. These nations developed cultures that naturally grew from races with “natural good health, and aggressive, intelligent, courageous traits.” The weakest nations, Hitler said were those of impure or mongrel races, because they have divided, quarrelling, and therefore weak cultures. “Races without homelands,” Hitler claimed, were “parasitic races,” and the richer the members of a “parasitic race” are, the more “virulent” the parasitism was thought to be. A “master race” could therefore, according to the Nazi doctrine, easily strengthen itself by eliminating “parasitic races” from its homeland.’ 226 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

14 Topic XX Unit Exam Papers SOURCE 3B The commentaries below are from an online exhibition on Eugenics in Nazi Germany from www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/online/deadlymedicine Extract A: This extract is from a Nazi law that promoted sterilisation: ‘On July 14, 1933, the Nazi dictatorship promulgated the Law for the Prevention of Genetically Diseased Oﬀspring. This Nazi law was co-authored by Falk Ruttke, a lawyer, Arthur Gütt, a physician and director of public health aﬀairs, and Ernst Rüdin, a psychiatrist and early leader of the German racial hygiene movement. Individuals who were subject to the law were those men and women who “suﬀered” from any of nine conditions assumed to be hereditary: feeblemindedness, schizophrenia, manic-depressive disorder, genetic epilepsy, Huntington’s chorea (a fatal form of dementia), genetic blindness, genetic deafness, severe physical deformity, and chronic alcoholism.’ Extract B: This source refers to some Nazi laws that promoted racial superiority in Germany at the time: ‘The “Blood Protection Law,” announced in Nuremberg on September 15, 1935, criminalised marriage or sexual relations between Jews and non-Jewish Germans. Soon after, Nazi leaders began privately discussing the “complete emigration” of all Jews as a goal. After the incorporation of Austria in March 1938 (the Anschluss), SS oﬃcer Adolf Eichmann coordinated the forced emigration of tens of thousands of Austrian Jews. The Nazi-organised attacks on German and Austrian Jews and Jewish property of November 9–10, 1938—Kristallnacht—convinced many Jews remaining in the Reich that leaving was their only option for survival.’ © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 227

4 12 Topic XX Unit Exam Papers SOURCE 3C The Nazis went to great lengths to develop their concept of the ‘master race’ or herrenvolk: A Wax casts of Roma-Sinti faces at a Racial Hygiene Centre. B The ‘Honor Cross for German Mothers’ Starting in 1938, this cross was handed out to especially prolific mothers. Those who had four or five children got bronze. Six or seven children would get you a silver. Those who gave birth to eight or more children would get a gold medal. (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington D.C.) 228 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

14 Topic XX Unit Exam Papers C The following illustration entitled ‘Encouragement of Genetically Healthy Families’ listed financial and social privileges such as housing, tax rebates, marriage allowances, single-family homes, etc. SOURCE 3D The Nazis made use of posters to promote their race policies: Poster A Neues Volk was a Eugenics magazine. The text says: ‘This genetically ill person will cost our people’s community 60 000 marks over his lifetime. Citizens, that is your money. Read Neuss Volk, the monthly of the racial policy oﬃce of the NSDAP.’ © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 229

4 12 Topic XX Unit Exam Papers Poster B A Nazi poster advertising the 1936 Berlin Olympics. SOURCE 3E Heydrich and Himmler were part of the team at the Wannsee Conference in January 1942 whose decisions became known as the ‘Final Solution to the Jewish Problem’. ‘Wannsee allowed the SS oﬃcials to finalise more of their planned emigration of Jews. Adequate transportation came in the form of rail lines and railcars. Concentration camps required more employers. The actual murder process needed greater precision and more resources. Himmler and Heydrich found that it would have been impossible to run a programme dedicated to the genocide of a mass of people without the cooperation of government oﬃcials. The Jewish population in the Reich was reduced by 3.1 million from the beginning of the emigration in 1933 to its conclusion in 1942. The gruesome realities of the time period were masked under the title of ‘The Final Solution’. Alarming the population was something that they hoped to avoid at all costs. As Himmler commented, “We had the moral right, we had the duty with regard to our people, to kill this race that wanted to kill us.” In the minds of the Germans, this belief justified all their actions and provided them with the validation they needed to continue doing it until they were victorious.’ 230 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

14 Topic XX Unit Answers to Exam Papers Proposed marking guidelines Source-based questions Question 1 1.1 Refer to Source 1A and your own knowledge 1.1.1 Explanations a capitalistic governments: democratic countries in Europe as well as the USA which have market related economies and freedom of choice, capital is invested to make a profit. 1 x 2 (2) b socialistic revolutions: rebellion and revolutions aimed at instituting radical change, these would challenge capitalist systems to impose equality and communal ownership, some even nationalisation. 1 x 2 (2) c armies of imperialism: socialistic view of the White (Allied) armies in the civil war, the Allies were portrayed as being expansionist and aggressive. 1 x 2 (2) 1.1.2 Using evidence • Damage of war and invasion of White armies. • Destruction of machinery and equipment by fleeing capitalists. • Crop failure and starvation. (Use discretion – any two) 2 x 2 (4) 1.1.3 Describing methods • Requisitioning of surpluses to keep the army supplied • Nationalisation of businesses • Abolition of private trade • No inheritance. (Must describe any two) 2 x 3 (6) 1.1.4 Explanation • Starvation in the cities. • Industry and machinery in a shambles. • Peasant farmers demoralised. 2 x 2 (4) 1.2 Paragraph: Level marking (use the rubric on page 214) 1.2.1 Yes the statement is accurate: mass executions, hostage taking, cruelty, coercion, arrests, hanging, repression, actions of the Cheka. The Communists had not delivered on their promises, poverty still prevalent. Any other relevant facts. (8) 1.3 Own knowledge and evidence 1.3.1 Providing aims • Propaganda by Communists to win support for the NEP; caption is reassuring the population that the end result will be socialistic although the NEP isn’t. • Visual of Lenin represents him as visionary hero who is industrialising Russia and working towards a workers’ state (illustration of construction workers in poster). 2 x 3 (6) 1.3.2 Not reliable Why? Two reasons: propaganda to distort the truth, use of exaggeration. Aimed at winning support for the NEP. 2 x 2 (4) 1.4 Examine sources 1.4.1 The photo in Source 2C shows a market and trading taking place. This means that freedom of choice and some capitalistic measures have stimulated the economy, capital changing hands. 2 x 2 (4) © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 231

4 12 Topic XX Unit Answers to Exam Papers 1.4.2 Source 2D contradicts the message in the poster (2C) as it shows a capitalistic result of the NEP and not a socialistic one; money, trade, market. He is promising to achieve a socialist revolution yet the photo shows capitalism. (Any one) 2 x 2 (4) 1.4.3 It negated the mechanisms of socialism by including capitalistic measures. It, in essence, is indicating that socialism has failed in its mission and has to be ‘rescued’ by capitalism. It appeared that the Communists had not kept to their original Socialistic ideals. (Any two) 2 x 2 (4) [50] Question 2 2.1 Examine evidence 2.1.1 Make deductions • Big business had free reins to make tremendous profits and increased spending. • New inventions were introduced e.g. radio • Communications had improved and advertising became a new sector. • Billboards – travelling by motor car beyond cities. • Leisure activities would change; new products could be advertised in magazines, on radio and in the printed media. (Any two) 2 x 2 (4) 2.1.2 Advertising • capitalism based on demand and supply • due to positive impact of WW1 many more Americans became consumers • consumption increased demand • advert: Coca Cola – metropolitan context of urbanised Americans, leisure industry. • Model T Ford – attracting young and upcoming businessmen • advertising a new industry = lucrative; shows purchasing power and intro of HP buying. (Any three facts) Mass production: • demand exceeded supply • increased demand due to buying power • introduced mass assembly line, e.g. Coca cola: secondary industries e.g. glass, transport, etc. • Ford: first mass assembly line: speed and expansion. • capitalist expansion (Any three relevant facts) Marketing: • sales and advertising • buying and selling part of capitalistic cycle • led to progression in communications industry • competition increased • financing schemes to aﬀord products. (Any three relevant facts) 3 x 3 (9) 2.1.3 Justify and explain reasoning Laissez faire policy: leave to do, little government regulation and interference, big busi- ness pays taxes and is given much freedom to dominate business and make a profit. Competition is rife. Apply these principles to any TWO of the following: Statistics: • Spending on advertising shows freedom to invest and advertise a range of items. 232 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

14 Topic XX Unit Answers to Exam Papers • This shows a confident manufacturing sector where production was sped up due to the mass production line. They also reflect leisure activities which show signs of improved lifestyles. Visuals: • Advert A: Skyscrapers, city metropolis, advertising, professional dress, shipping, development, wealth. • Visual B: American dream, improved standard of living, larger wages and salaries, stay at home wife, happy, car introduced as a convenience, easier lifestyle. 2 x 3 (6) 2.2 Paragraph 2.2.1 Deductions Content • Cities: • Growth of suburbs as people could live further from work • Roads developed due to introduction of cars • Electrification: new consumer appliances, lighting and heating for homes and businesses communications expanded • Recreational activities became major businesses – businesses had to reorganise. • Countryside: • Lighting, sewage, roads, telephone systems, new appliances, food preservation, etc. • Contact and mobility for population which was sparse at the time. Presentation • Paragraph – structure must be evident. • Mark presentation on rubric levels. 2.3 Source and own knowledge 2.3.1 Message of the song: Black Americans are marginalised as they are not deemed as important citizens in US societies. Their dignity is compromised by discrimination and racism in US society, but this will shortly change due to action and it will end. 1 x 5 (5) 2.3.2 The writer expresses his feelings of loneliness and shame but also his resilience and hope that things will change soon (stanza 1 and 3) It shows tenacity of many to change matters around to be included and to take up their rightful place (stanza 3 and 4) (Any other relevant point) 2 x 2 (4) 2.4 Source and own knowledge 2.4.1 per capita income: the earnings of each person in a country, on average 1 x 2 (2) 2.4.2 Farm production decreased from US$21 billion to US$11.8 billion; therefore many farmers sold their farms- couldn’t sustain a living. 435 000 farmers forced oﬀ their land – can be seen in photo. No savings for 80% of US families: therefore no safety net for diﬃcult times. 3 x 2 (6) 2.4.3 Vulnerability of farmers in 1929: • prices for their goods fell by 50 percent between 1929 and 1932 – surplus crops couldn’t be sold for a profit • severe drought 1930 – across plains, dust bowl, top soil destroyed • many migrated due to loss of farmers. (Any other relevant facts) 3 x 2 (6) [50] © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 233

4 12 Topic XX Unit Answers to Exam Papers Question 3 3.1 Source and own knowledge 3.1.1 Opinion and reasons Yes • Study used to improve the characteristics and qualities of race. • Controlled selective breeding to improve the human race. • Science which deals with all influences that improve and develop the inborn quality of race. 2 x 2 (4) 3.1.2 Credit reasoning No • Morals have to be taken into account when making decisions about human beings and the ending or prolonging of life. • There is no justification for ending human life to sustain the other. • Individuals who are born disabled or deformed will be targeted and treated in an inhumane way as they do not ‘make any contribution’ to society. • It could lead to othering and discrimination; based on subjectivity; weak will be marginalised. • It could lead to systematic extermination of a minority or the weak. 3 x 2 (6) 3.1.3 Explanation • The Nazis believed in principles such as ‘might is right’ and ‘survival of the fittest’. Hitler promoted the idea that to survive attacks from other nations or from within, Germany should have a strong military force to defend itself and if necessary launch the oﬀensive e.g. to subject the Slavs, lebensraum, etc. • These aims bore resonance with groups such as the Freikorps, SA, Gestapo, and fascists in German society who were right-wing and anti the left. 2 x 2 (4) 3.1.4 Use discretion: 2 x 2 (4) Eugenics – Galton Nazi ideology Preserve the best specimens of a race Great nations develop from great specimens Improve and develop the inborn qualities of Master race could strengthen itself by race. eliminating weak elements of the race Good specimens will contribute more than Great powers grow from military strength. their proportion to the next generation. 3.2 Source and own knowledge 3.2.1 Describe • Racial hygiene = part of Nazi policy – to cleanse or purify the German/Aryan race through sterilisation • Nine conditions identified that were assumed to be hereditary • Introduction of forced sterilisation to get rid of weaknesses in order to strengthen the Aryan race in the end. 1 x 3 (3) 3.2.2 Use discretion and credit reasonable answers. • Power of education and indoctrination led perpetrators to believe in the cause of building a master race. • They earnestly believed that they were using their skills to build a better race. • Maybe they stood to gain when action was taken against others, e.g. promotion. 2 x 2 (4) 3.2.3 Explanation • Blood Marriage Law outlawed marriage between Jews and non-Jews • Led to forced emigration 234 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

14 Topic XX Unit Answers to Exam Papers • Eventual programme of final solution. • Bystander behaviour of not taking a stand in fact encouraged the Nazi perpetrators to go further and to become more brutal and more ruthless. • The lack of reaction to the intervention of the State in the sexual relations and marriages of Germans and German Jews was the first small step towards more drastic measures that would lead to Kristallnacht and eventual murder of Jews (genocide). 2 x 2 (4) 3.3 Paragraph 3.3.1 Explain rationale Content • A – wax casts of Roma–Sinti faces to study outward signs as diﬀerence between races. • Gypsies were outcasts and studies were made in order to ‘prove’ that they made no contribution to German culture or civilisation. • B – medal for more births – German women were rewarded for increasing the birth rate of Germany and adding individuals to the Aryan master race. • C – Propaganda to encourage genetically fit individuals by promoting many rewards or gains. • These instances show the idea of selectivity and choice to improve the stock/race in order to create a master race. Level Criteria Marks • Is unable to, or only partially able to, link the visuals to the master 1 race idea of the Nazis. Not 1–2 • Poor insight, confused and lacking insight. achieved • Knowledge very basic and interpretation immature. • Is able to select relevant knowledge to link the visuals to the 2 master race idea of the Nazis. 3–5 Achieved • Sporadic to solid glimpses of insight. • Knowledge solid and interpretation good. 3 • Is able to use the evidence well to link the visuals to master race Achieved idea of the Nazis. 6–7 with • Expert reasoning and exceptional insight displayed. excellence • Knowledge comprehensive and interpretation mature. 3.4 Propaganda posters 3.4.1 Explanation Three techniques: Fonts, slogans, captions, visual eﬀects. Poster A: • Selective breeding so that only the fittest will survive, discrimination against ‘genetically ill’. Attitudes dominated by racial policy where Jews are viewed as a hindrance to achieving the master race. • Visual: mentally ill. • Font: refers to old Germanic empire, refers to traditions and heritage. • Viewer internalises appeal and is drawn in to make the personal decision; emotion/ ‘your money’. Poster B: • Association of the portrayal of the perfect human form from ancient/classical civilisations, promotes the idea of competition and victory of the strongest, only the fittest will survive. Perfect image of human being. Brandenburg Gate in Berlin bears historic connection to German history. 3 x 3 (9) © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 235

4 12 Topic XX Unit Answers to Exam Papers 3.5 Source and own knowledge 3.5.1 Opinion and reasons • Genocide is the deliberate and systematic destruction of a particular religious racial, national or cultural group. • It would not have been possible to carry out the Nazi policy of extermination if the skilled bureaucrats and government oﬃcials were not part of the process. • The programme of the Final Solution depended on a large number of oﬃcials to ensure that the large numbers of Jews were rounded up and transported to the extermination camps. • It was seen as the duty of all members of the Nazi government and bureaucracy to kill the Jews as they were defending themselves. They are as much to blame If resistance had been oﬀered the genocide might not have happened. 1 x 5 (5) [50] Extended writing questions Topic 1: Question 4 Synopsis Candidates need to indicate that his primary ambition was to save the revolution at all costs in 1918, but by 1921 he pragmatically changed and adapted his economic policies to achieve this aim. It is noticeable that he hadn’t fully achieved this aim by 1924. Introduction: • It is important to indicate a line of argument in relation to the question – focus is essential. For example: Lenin had to deliver on his promises in 1918 despite being faced by civil war and socio-economic problems. This was his main aim but he had to postpone it when he introduced the NEP in 1921. Many hardliners felt that he abandoned communist principles in 1921 and reverted to more stringent measures after Lenin’s death. Elaboration Main points: • 1918 Decrees • Elections: precarious situation – cannot introduce socialism gradually • Civil War and War Communism: desperate to win the war to save the socialist revolution and to fight the counter-revolution. • Discuss essence of War Communism and methods used by Red Army to win. • War Communism showed his intention to enforce communism to hand on to power. • Consequences of War Communism and threat of counter-revolution. • Introduced NEP and compromises with capitalism – include details to show his compromise with capitalism.. • Assess degree of success with the implementation of socialism. Conclusion: • Refer back to question and close argument. For example: NEP only temporary measure to generate wealth for Russia to become socialistic. But by 1924 most of the socialist demands of the Russian citizens were still not met War Communism closer to true communism than NEP. [50] 236 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

14 Topic XX Unit Answers to Exam Papers Topic 2: Question 5 Synopsis Candidates need to discuss the most important weaknesses in the US economy that caused the Great Depression in 1929. Introduction: • It is important to indicate a line of argument in relation to the question – focus is essential. For example: The 1920s is known as the Roaring Twenties yet the opulence, decadence and progression was a veneer that covered the real weaknesses of the economy. It was a combination of factors that led to the depression. Elaboration Main points: • Low prices for agricultural products • Low wages for workers • Unequally distributed wealth • Protective tariﬀs: Fordney-McCumber Tariﬀ and Smoot-Hawley Acts; trade declined. • European nations defaulted on debts and withdrew investments in the United States. • Unregulated stock speculation led to Stock Market Crash in 1929; lost more than $40 billion dollars after the Crash. • Bank failures: bank deposits were uninsured, people lost savings, not readily giving loans to buyers, therefore less expenditure. Conclusion: • Draw the argument to a close. Do NOT provide any new information. Show, for example: There were many weaknesses that led to problems for the USA when the NYSE collapsed in Oct 1929. [50] © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook 237

4 12 Topic XX Unit Answers to Exam Papers Topic 3: Question 6 [50] Synopsis Candidates need to present an independent line of argument in which they propose a view supporting or refuting the statement. They need to indicate whether there is a link between eugenics and anti-Semitism as well, and then link their ideas to the Holocaust. Introduction: • It is important to indicate a line of argument in relation to the question – focus is essential. For example: • anti-Semitism existed in European society even in medieval times • eugenics and anti-Semitism fanned on the nationalism and racism that the Nazis proposed • segregationist and racist attitudes combined with eugenics to create a new dimension known as racial anti-Semitism • it became acceptable to remover the weak and poor from society Elaboration Main points: • discussion of anti-Semitism, eugenics and holocaust • problems of Germany in 1930s blamed on Jews • fragility of democracy characterised by tension • Nazi Party ideology: race, lebensraum, herrenvolk, dictatorship, etc • propaganda to create the ‘prefect Aryan race’ • indoctrination of the youth • attitudes and policies towards the Jews – Nuremberg Laws • boycott of Jewish businesses Concentrate on period 1938 to 1945: • Kristallnacht • Ghettoes and pogroms • Deportations to camps • Mass murder, genocide and the final solution. Conclusion: Draw argument together in a way to show whether eugenics and anti-Semitism were the main reasons for the mass extermination of the Jews. [50] 238 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 11 Study Guide eBook

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